Arxitekturada mis - Copper in architecture

Yifei Originality ko'chasidagi zamonaviy binoga tashqi mis qoplama,^[1] bittasi Shanxay badiiy, madaniy va ko'ngilochar markazlari.

Nordic Elchixonalari, yilda Berlin, Germaniya.^[2]

Mis fasad Eman parki Ommaviy kutubxona,^[3] BIZ.

Xitoy Xalq Respublikasi, Shimoliy Xenan viloyati, Anyang shahridagi Yin Xarobalar muzeyidagi me'moriy mis kassetada o'yma.^[4]

Yura davridagi Asturiya muzeyi (MUJA) Ispaniyada, dinozavrning oyog'iga o'xshash uch tomli mis peshtoq bilan.^[5]

Klaukkala cherkovi yilda Klaukkala, Finlyandiya, asosan mashinada tikilgan mis shi bilan qoplangan.^[6][7]

Mis ga tegishli sohalarda hurmatli o'rinni egalladi me'morchilik, bino qurilishi va ichki dizayn.^[8] Kimdan soborlar ga qal'alar va dan uylar ga idoralar, mis turli xil me'moriy elementlar uchun, shu jumladan tomlar, chaqmoqlar, ariqlar, suv o'tkazgichlari, gumbazlar, shpillar, tonozlar, devor qoplamasi va bino kengaytiruvchi bo'g'inlar.

Tarixi arxitekturada mis uning chidamliligi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin, korroziyaga qarshilik, obro'li ko'rinish va murakkab shakllarni shakllantirish qobiliyati.^[9] Asrlar davomida ustalar va dizaynerlar ushbu xususiyatlardan estetik va uzoq muddatli qurilish tizimlarini yaratish uchun foydalanganlar.^[10]

So'nggi chorak asr davomida mis yangi uslublarni, ranglarning turlarini va turli xil shakllar va to'qimalarni o'z ichiga olgan binolarni ancha keng doirasiga mo'ljallangan.^[11] Mis bilan qoplangan devorlar ichki va tashqi muhitda zamonaviy dizayn elementidir.

Dunyodagi eng taniqli zamonaviy me'morlarning ba'zilari misga ishonishgan. Bunga misollar kiradi Frenk Lloyd Rayt, uning barcha qurilish loyihalarida mis materiallarini kim ko'rsatgan;^[9] Maykl Greyvz, dunyo bo'ylab 350 dan ortiq binolarni loyihalashtirgan AIA Oltin medali sohibi;^[12] Renzo pianino, kim uchun oldindan patinlangan qoplamali mis ishlab chiqardi NEMO -Metropolis Ilmiy Muzeyi Amsterdam;^[13] WCCO Television Communications Center-da patenlangan mis shingillalari Malkolm Xolzman ushbu inshootni Minneaoplisdagi me'moriy obro'ga aylantirdi;^[14] va Marianne Dalbek va Göran Mnsson tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan Vasa muzeyi, 12000 kvadrat metr (130.000 kvadrat metr) mis qoplamali Stokgolm siluetining taniqli xususiyati.^[15] Me'mor Frank O. Geri misning katta mis haykali Vila Olimpica yilda "Barselona" misdan badiiy foydalanishning namunasidir.^[16][17][18]

Misning eng taniqli xususiyati - bu yorqin metall rangdan iridescent jigarranggacha qora ranggacha va nihoyat yashil rangli verdigrisgacha namoyish etilishi. patina. Me'morlar jigarrang ranglarni russet, shokolad, olxo'ri, maun va qora daraxtlar deb ta'riflaydilar.^[19] Metallning o'ziga xos yashil patinasi me'morlar va dizaynerlar tomonidan uzoq vaqtdan beri orzu qilingan.

Ushbu maqolada arxitekturada misning amaliy va estetik foydalari, shuningdek tashqi ilovalar, ichki dizayn elementlari va yashil binolarda foydalanish tasvirlangan.

Tarix

Mis ming yillar davomida me'morchilikda rol o'ynagan. Masalan, ichida qadimgi Misr, ma'badga katta eshiklar Omin-Re da Karnak mis bilan qoplangan edi. Miloddan avvalgi 3-asrda Lowa Maha Paya ibodatxonasi ustiga mis tom yopish plitalari o'rnatildi. Shri-Lanka.^[10] Va Rimliklarga uchun tom yopish sifatida mis ishlatilgan Panteon miloddan avvalgi 27 yilda^[20]

Asrlar o'tib, mis va uning qotishmalari ajralmas edi o'rta asrlar me'morchilik. Eshiklari Tug'ilish cherkovi da Baytlahm (6-asr) naqshlar bilan kesilgan bronza plitalari bilan qoplangan. Ular Ayasofya da Konstantinopol, 8-9 asrlarda bronza bilan ishlangan. Germaniyadagi Axen soboridagi bronza eshiklar milodiy 800 yillarga oid. Bronza suvga cho'mdirish eshiklari Florensiya sobori tomonidan hijriy 1423 yilda qurib bitkazilgan Ghiberti.^[21]

Ning mis tomi Hildesxaym sobori, hijriy 1280 yilda o'rnatilgan, bugungi kungacha saqlanib qolgan.^[22] Va tom Kronborg, Shimoliy Evropaning eng muhimlaridan biri Uyg'onish davri kabi abadiylashtirilgan qal'alar Elsinore qal'asi yilda Shekspir "s Hamlet, hijriy 1585 yilda o'rnatilgan.^[23] Minora ustidagi mis 2009 yilda yangilangan.^[24]

Ko'p yillar davomida mis asosan cherkovlar, hukumat binolari va universitetlar kabi davlat muassasalari uchun saqlanib kelingan. Mis tomlari ko'pincha ushbu tuzilmalarning me'moriy jihatdan ajralib turadigan xususiyatlaridan biridir.^[9]

Bugungi kunda me'moriy mis ishlatilgan tom yopish tizimlar, chaqmoqlar va ko'paytirish, yomg'ir kanallari va suv o'tkazgichlari, bino kengaytiruvchi bo'g'inlar, devor qoplamasi, gumbazlar, shpillar, tonozlar, va boshqa har xil dizayn elementlari. Bir vaqtning o'zida metall ob-havo to'siqlaridan va tashqi dizayn elementidan yopiq bino muhitiga aylandi, u erda savdo va turar-joy binolarini bezatish uslubi o'zgarib bormoqda.^[25]

21-asrda misdan foydalanish ichki muhitda rivojlanishda davom etmoqda. Yaqinda isbotlangan mikroblarga qarshi xususiyatlar patogenni kamaytirish bakterial kabi mahsulotlarga yuklaydi tutqichlar, choyshablar, hammom jihozlari, hisoblagichlar va boshqalar mikroblarga qarshi mis - asosli mahsulotlar endi jamoat ob'ektlariga qo'shilmoqda (kasalxonalar, qariyalar uylari, ommaviy tranzit sog'liqni saqlash uchun foydalari tufayli, shuningdek turar-joy binolarida. (Asosiy maqola uchun qarang: Antimikrobiyal mis-qotishma tegadigan yuzalar.)

Foyda

Korroziyaga qarshilik

Arxitektura metall sifatida mis mukammallikni ta'minlaydi korroziyaga qarshilik.^[26] Mis sirtlari qattiq oksid-sulfat hosil qiladi patina mis qatlamlarini himoya qiladigan va korroziyaga juda uzoq vaqt qarshilik ko'rsatadigan qoplamalar.^[19]

Mis ifloslanmagan havoda, suvda, gazsiz oksidlanmaydigan kislotalarda va ular ta'sirida noaniq darajada zanglaydi sho'r suv echimlar, gidroksidi echimlar va organik kimyoviy moddalar. Qishloq atmosferasida mis tomi 0,4 mm dan pastroq darajada zanglaydi (¹⁄₆₄ yilda) 200 yil ichida.^[27]

Ko'pgina boshqa metallardan farqli o'laroq, mis tom yopishida barbod bo'lishiga olib keladigan pastki korroziyadan aziyat chekmaydi. Mis tomi bilan, qo'llab-quvvatlovchi substratlar va tuzilmalar odatda uyingizda misdan ancha oldin ishlamay qoladi.^[11]

Biroq, me'moriy mis ma'lum sharoitlarda korroziv hujumga moyil. Oksidlovchi kislotalar, oksidlovchi og'ir metall tuzlari, gidroksidi, oltingugurt va azot oksidlari, ammiak va ba'zi oltingugurt va ammoniy birikmalari misning korroziyasini tezlashtirishi mumkin. A bo'lgan hududlarda yog'ingarchilik pH 5.5 dan kamrog'i misni korroziyaga solishi mumkin, ehtimol patina yoki himoya oksidi plyonkasi paydo bo'lish vaqtiga ega bo'lishi mumkin. Sifatida tanilgan kislotali yog'ingarchilik kislotali yomg'ir, chiqindi gazlar bilan bog'liq qazilma yoqilg'i yonish, kimyoviy ishlab chiqarish yoki chiqaradigan boshqa jarayonlar oltingugurt va azot oksidlari ichiga atmosfera.^[28] Eroziya korroziyasi mis bo'lmagan tomning kislotali suvi, masalan, kafel, shifer, yog'och yoki asfalt kabi kislotalikni zararsizlantirmaydi, misning kichik maydoniga tushganda paydo bo'lishi mumkin. Agar inert tom yopish materialining tomchi tomiri to'g'ridan-to'g'ri mis ustiga yotsa, chiziqli korroziya paydo bo'lishi mumkin. Buning echimi shingillalarning pastki chetini kant lentasi bilan ko'tarish yoki shingillalar va mis o'rtasida almashtiriladigan mustahkamlovchi chiziq bilan ta'minlash bo'lishi mumkin.^[26] Metall sirtlarda kislotali suvning qolish vaqtini qisqartiradigan suvni to'kib tashlaydigan to'g'ri loyihalash va detallashtirish atmosferadagi korroziya bilan bog'liq muammolarning aksariyat qismini oldini oladi.^[28]

Mis havo pervanesi me'moriy element sifatida

Guruch, mis va rux qotishmasi atmosfera korroziyasiga, ishqorlarga va organik kislotalarga yaxshi qarshilik ko'rsatadi. Ammo ba'zi ichimlik suvlarida va dengiz suvlarida 20% va undan ko'proq guruch qotishmalari mavjud rux korroziv hujumga duch kelishi mumkin.^[29]

Uyingizda chizig'i haqida batafsil ma'lumot Kresge auditoriyasi, Massachusets texnologiya instituti, AQShda

Chidamlilik / uzoq umr

Mis tomlari ko'pgina muhitlarda nihoyatda bardoshlidir. Ular 700 yildan ortiq vaqt davomida yaxshi natijalarga erishdilar, birinchi navbatda mis yuzalarida hosil bo'lgan himoya patinasi tufayli. Evropada 18-asrning mis tomlarida o'tkazilgan sinovlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, nazariy jihatdan ular ming yil davom etishi mumkin.^[19]

Kam issiqlik harakati

To'g'ri ishlab chiqilgan mis tomlari issiqlik o'zgarishi tufayli harakatlarni minimallashtiradi. Misning pastligi issiqlik kengayishi, Sink va qo'rg'oshindan 40% kamroq^{[iqtibos kerak ]}, buzilish va ishdan chiqishni oldini olishga yordam beradi. Bundan tashqari, misning balandligi erish nuqtasi bo'lmasligini ta'minlaydi sudralmoq yoki ba'zi boshqa metallarga o'xshab cho'zing.

Kichik gable tomlari, issiqlik harakati nisbatan kichik va odatda bu muammo emas. 60 m (200 fut) dan oshiq keng binolarda va uzun panellardan foydalanilganda issiqlik kengayishi uchun mablag 'kerak bo'lishi mumkin. Bu tomning xavfsizligini ta'minlab, qo'llab-quvvatlovchi pastki inshootlar ustida "suzib yurish" imkonini beradi.^[30]

Kam texnik

Mis tozalash yoki parvarish qilishni talab qilmaydi. O'rnatishdan keyin kirish qiyin yoki xavfli bo'lgan joylar uchun juda mos keladi.

Engil

To'liq qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan tom yopish sifatida ishlatilganda, mis qo'rg'oshin og'irligining yarmi (shu jumladan substrat) va chinni tomlarning faqat to'rtdan bir qismidir. Bu odatda qo'llab-quvvatlovchi tuzilma va materiallar xarajatlarini tejashni ta'minlaydi. Mis qoplamasi mis konstruktsiyalarining og'irligini kamaytirish uchun qo'shimcha imkoniyatlarni taklif etadi (Batafsil ma'lumot uchun qarang: Mis qoplamasi va Devorlarni qoplash ).

Shamollatish

Mis murakkablikni talab qilmaydi shamollatish chora-tadbirlar. Ham shamollatilmagan "issiq", ham shamollatiladigan "sovuq" tom inshootlari uchun javob beradi.^[20]

Radio chastotasini himoya qilish

Nozik elektron uskunalar shovqinlarga va ruxsatsiz ta'sirga duchor bo'ladi nazorat. Ushbu mahsulotlar, shuningdek, himoya qilishni talab qiladi yuqori kuchlanish. Radio chastotasini himoya qilish ning uzatilishini kamaytirish orqali ushbu muammolarni hal qilishi mumkin elektr yoki magnit maydonlari bir bo'shliqdan boshqasiga.

Mis chastotani himoya qilish uchun ajoyib materialdir, chunki u singdiradi radio va magnit to'lqinlar. RF chastotasini himoya qilishning boshqa foydali xususiyatlari shundaki, misning elektr o'tkazuvchanligi yuqori, egiluvchan, egiluvchan va lehimlari oson.^[31]

RF chastotasi bilan himoyalangan muhofazalar muayyan sharoitlar uchun bir qator chastotalarni filtrlaydi. To'g'ri ishlab chiqilgan va qurilgan mis korpuslar kompyuter va elektr ulanish xonalaridan kasalxonaga qadar chastotali himoya qilishning ko'pgina ehtiyojlarini qondiradi CAT-skanerlash va MRI inshootlar.^[32][31] Eshiklar, shamollatish teshiklari va kabellar kabi qalqonning kirib borishiga alohida e'tibor qaratish lozim.

Qalqon elektromagnit maydonning bir turiga qarshi samarali bo'lishi mumkin, ammo boshqasiga qarshi emas. Masalan, mis plyonka yoki ekranli chastotali qalqon quvvat chastotasi magnit maydonlariga nisbatan minimal darajada samarali bo'ladi. Quvvatli chastotali magnit qalqon radio chastotasi maydonlarini ozgina qisqartirishi mumkin. Xuddi shu narsa turli xil chastotali chastotalar uchun ham amal qiladi. Oddiy katta tarmoqli ekran qalqoni past chastotalar uchun yaxshi ishlashi mumkin, ammo mikroto'lqinli pechlar uchun samarasiz bo'lishi mumkin.^[33]

Mis galleon nihoyatda.

RF chastotasini himoya qilish uchun choyshab mislari har qanday shakl va o'lchamda shakllanishi mumkin. Topraklama tizimiga elektr aloqasi samarali chastota muhofazasini ta'minlaydi.

Chaqmoqdan himoya

Chaqmoq himoya qilish chaqmoqni to'xtatish paytida binolarga etkazilgan zararni minimallashtiradi. Bu, odatda, erga past elektr impedansining bir-biriga bog'liq bo'lgan bir necha yo'llarini ta'minlash orqali amalga oshiriladi.

Mis va uning qotishmalari yashinni himoya qilishda ishlatiladigan eng keng tarqalgan materiallardir, ammo sanoat, kimyoviy korroziy muhitda misni kalay bilan qoplash kerak bo'lishi mumkin.^[34] Mis juda yaxshi bo'lgani uchun chaqmoq energiyasini erga uzatishni samarali ravishda osonlashtiradi elektr o'tkazuvchanligi. Bundan tashqari, u boshqa o'tkazgich materiallari bilan taqqoslaganda osongina egiladi.

Mis tomi, oluklari va yomg'ir etakchilari erni tugatish inshootiga elektr bilan bog'langanida, erga past elektr impedansiyasi yo'li beriladi, ammo bo'shatish kanalini kontsentratsiyalash uchun ajratilgan o'tkazuvchi yo'llarsiz, dispersli energiya bilan ta'minlangan sirt eng maqbul bo'lmasligi mumkin .^[11][35]

Misning alyuminiydan yuqori elektr o'tkazuvchanligi borligi va chaqmoq tugashi paytida uning impedansi kamroq bo'lganligi sababli, mis alyuminiyga qaraganda to'qilgan simlar yo'lida chiziqli uzunlik bo'yicha kamroq tasavvurlar yuzasini ishlatishga imkon beradi. Bundan tashqari, alyuminiy quyilgan betonda yoki er osti tarkibiy qismlarida ishlatilishi mumkin emas galvanik xususiyatlar.^[36]

Effektli bo'lish uchun chaqmoqlardan himoya qilish tizimlari odatda har xil konstruktsiyalarning tuproqli panjarasi orqali o'tkazgichlar va er o'rtasidagi sirt aloqasini maksimal darajada oshiradi. Qum yoki tosh kabi past o'tkazuvchan tuproqdagi topraklama tarmoqlarini to'ldirish uchun metall tuzlar bilan to'ldirilgan uzun, ichi bo'sh mis quvurlar mavjud. Ushbu tuzlar naychadagi teshiklardan o'tib, atrofdagi tuproqni ko'proq o'tkazuvchan qiladi va shuningdek, umumiy qarshilik maydonini kamaytiradi.^[34]

Mis tomlari chaqmoqni himoya qilish sxemasining bir qismi sifatida ishlatilishi mumkin teri, oluklar va yomg'ir suvi quvurlari erni tugatish inshootiga ulanishi va bog'lanishi mumkin. Tom yopish materiallari uchun belgilangan mis qalinligi odatda chaqmoqdan himoya qilish uchun etarli.^[37] O'rnatilgan mis tomli tizim bilan yashinni etarli darajada himoya qilish uchun maxsus chaqmoqlarni himoya qilish tizimi tavsiya etilishi mumkin. Tizimga havo terminallari va tomidagi tutib turuvchi o'tkazgichlar, tuproqli elektrodlar tizimi va tom va yer qismlarini bog'laydigan pastga o'tkazgichlar tizimi kiradi. Mis tomini o'tkazgichlar tizimiga yopishtirish tavsiya etiladi. Bog'lanish o'tkazgichlar va tomning potentsial darajasida bo'lishini va yonib-o'chib turishini va tomning mumkin bo'lgan shikastlanishini kamaytiradi.^[35]

Tugatishlarning keng doirasi

Ba'zan mis yoki mis qotishmalarining sirtini kimyoviy o'zgartirib, boshqa rang hosil qilish maqsadga muvofiqdir. Ishlab chiqarilgan eng keng tarqalgan ranglar jigarrang yoki haykal uchun tugaydi guruch yoki bronza va yashil yoki patina uchun tugaydi mis.^[38] Mexanik ishlov berish, kimyoviy rang berish va qoplamalar ushbu maqolaning boshqa joylarida quyidagicha tavsiflanadi: Tugatish.

Dizaynning uzluksizligi

Mimarlar ko'pincha me'moriy misdan dizayn elementlarining uzluksizligini izlashadi. Masalan, mis tom yopish tizimi mis chirog'i, ob-havo sharoiti, teshiklari, oluklari va quvurlari bilan ishlab chiqilishi mumkin. Muqova tafsilotlarini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin kornişlar, pervazlar, finallar va haykallar.^[11]

Vertikal qoplamadan tobora ko'payib borayotganligi sababli, vertikal va tom yopish sirtlari bir-biriga tushishi mumkin, shunda material va ishlashning to'liq uzluksizligi saqlanib qoladi. Yomg'ir ekranlari va pardani devor bilan qoplash (ko'pincha bilan bog'langan transomlar va mollar ) zamonaviy arxitektura dizaynida ham ommalashmoqda.^[39]

Antimikrobiyal

Kaplanmamış mis va mis qotishmalari (masalan, guruch, bronza, mis nikel, mis-nikel-rux) kuchli ichki antimikrobiyal xususiyatlarga ega ekanligi butun dunyo bo'ylab o'tkazilgan keng miqyosli sinovlar kasalliklarga chidamli bo'lgan turli xil ta'sirlarga ega ekanligini isbotladi. bakteriyalar, qoliplar, qo'ziqorinlar va viruslar.^[40] Ko'p yillik sinovlardan so'ng, AQSh antimikrobiyal materiallar sifatida 300 dan ortiq turli xil mis qotishmalarini (mis, guruch, bronza, mis-nikel va kumush) ro'yxatdan o'tkazishni ma'qulladi. Ushbu o'zgarishlar ichki me'morchilikda mikroblarga qarshi mis va mis qotishmalarining bozorlarini yaratmoqda. Qurilish yuzalari, tuzilmalari, dastgohlari va tarkibiy qismlari uchun dizayn ehtiyojlarini qondirish uchun antimikrobiyal misga asoslangan mahsulotlar turli xil ranglar, pardozlash va mexanik xususiyatlarga ega.^[8][41] Mis tutqichlar, stol usti, yo'laklar, eshiklar, itarish plitalari, oshxonalar va hammomlar zararli bakteriyalarni yo'q qilish uchun kasalxonalar, aeroportlar, idoralar, maktablar va armiya kazarmalari uchun tasdiqlangan antimikrobiyal mahsulotlarning bir qismidir. Qarang: AQShda tasdiqlangan mahsulotlar ro'yxati.

Barqarorlik

Ning umume'tirof etilgan ta'rifi bo'lsa-da barqarorlik tushunarsiz bo'lib qolmoqda Brundtland komissiyasi ning Birlashgan Millatlar barqaror rivojlanishni kelajak avlodlarning o'z ehtiyojlarini qondirish qobiliyatiga ziyon etkazmasdan, hozirgi zamon talablariga javob beradigan rivojlanish deb ta'riflagan. Barqarorlik, mas'uliyatni uzoq muddat saqlab turish ekologik, ijtimoiy tenglik va iqtisodiy talablarni muvofiqlashtirishni talab qiladi. Barqarorlikning ushbu "uch ustuni" resurslardan foydalanishni mas'uliyatli boshqarishni o'z ichiga oladi. Bundan tashqari, bu biz iste'molni ko'payishiga qaramay mo'l-ko'l bo'lishni to'xtatmaydigan resursdan foydalanishimiz mumkinligini anglatishi mumkin.

Mis barqaror materialdir. Uning chidamliligi ozgina parvarish bilan uzoq xizmatni taklif etadi. Uning yuqori elektr va issiqlik energiyasi samaradorligi elektr energiyasining chiqindilarini kamaytiradi. Uning mikroblarga qarshi xususiyatlari kasallikka olib keladigan patogen mikroorganizmlarni yo'q qiladi. Uning yuqori hurda qiymati va ishlashni yo'qotmasdan doimiy ravishda qayta ishlash qobiliyati uning qimmatli manba sifatida mas'uliyatli boshqaruvini ta'minlaydi.

Hayot tsikli inventarizatsiyasi (LCI) mis quvurlari, plitalari va simli buyumlar haqida ma'lumot ISO standartlari va tog'-kon sanoati va birlamchi mis ishlab chiqarish sohalarini qamrab olish (ya'ni, eritish va qayta ishlash) mavjud.^[42] Ichida ishlatilgan hayot aylanishini baholash (LCA), xususan, qurilish va qurilish sohasida LCI ma'lumotlar to'plamlari mis tarkibidagi mahsulot ishlab chiqaruvchilarga muvofiqlik va ixtiyoriy takomillashtirish tashabbuslariga muvofiq yordam beradi. Shuningdek, ular atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar va qoidalarni ishlab chiqishda siyosat ishlab chiqaruvchilarni qo'llab-quvvatlaydilar barqaror rivojlanish.

Mis qoplamasi va qoplamasining uzoq umr ko'rishi misning butun hayotini boshqa materiallarga nisbatan ijobiy ta'siriga ta'sir qiladi. gavdalangan energiya iste'mol (ya'ni, har bir hayot aylanishining har bir bosqichida MJ / m ga sarf qilingan umumiy energiya)²), CO₂ ishlab chiqarish va narx.

Qayta ishlashga yaroqlilik

Mis panellari Kanada urushi muzeyi yilda parlamentning eski tomidan qayta ishlangan Ottava.

Qayta ishlash qobiliyati a-ning asosiy omilidir barqaror material. Bu yangi konlarni qazib olishga bo'lgan ehtiyojni kamaytiradi resurslar va nisbatan kamroq energiya talab qiladi kon qazib olish. Mis va uning qotishmalari deyarli 100% qayta ishlanadigan^[10] va sifatni yo'qotmasdan cheksiz ravishda qayta ishlanishi mumkin (ya'ni, mis tanazzulga uchramaydi (ya'ni, pastga tushish ) har bir qayta ishlash davridan keyin, ko'pgina metall bo'lmagan materiallar singari, agar ular umuman qayta ishlanadigan bo'lsa). Mis o'zining dastlabki metall qiymatini saqlaydi: yuqori sifatli hurda, odatda yangi qazib olinadigan dastlabki metall qiymatining kamida 95 foizini o'z ichiga oladi ruda. Raqobatdosh materiallar uchun hurda qiymatlari taxminan 60% dan 0% gacha. Misni qayta ishlash uchun birlamchi metallni qazib olish va qayta ishlash uchun zarur bo'lgan energiyaning atigi 20% talab qilinadi.

Hozirgi vaqtda Evropaning misga bo'lgan yillik talabining taxminan 40%^[44] va me'morchilikda ishlatiladigan misning taxminan 55%^[11] qayta ishlangan manbalardan kelib chiqadi. Yangi mis lasan va choyshab ko'pincha 75% -100% qayta ishlangan tarkibga ega.

1985 yilga kelib, 1950 yilda iste'mol qilingan misning umumiy miqdoridan ko'proq mis qayta ishlandi. Buning sababi chiqindilarni qayta ishlash va ulardan foydalanish muddati tugagandan keyin misdan qutqarish nisbatan osonligi.^[11]

Olti tomonlama mis kubok mis bilan nihoyatda va mis xo'roz havo pervanesi ustiga o'rnatilgan

.

Iqtisodiy samaradorlik

Ishlash, texnik xizmat ko'rsatish muddati va qayta ishlashdan olinadigan xarajatlar qurilish tarkibiy qismlarining iqtisodiy samaradorligini belgilaydigan omillardir. Misning dastlabki narxi ba'zi boshqa me'moriy metallarga qaraganda yuqori bo'lsa-da, odatda binoning ishlash muddati davomida uni almashtirish kerak emas. Chidamliligi, kam texnik va mukammalligi tufayli qutqarish qiymati, mis uchun qo'shimcha xarajatlar tom yopish tizimining ishlash muddati davomida ahamiyatsiz bo'lishi mumkin.^[45]

Mis tomi nisbatan arzonroq qo'rg'oshin, shifer yoki qo'lda tayyorlangan gil plitkalar. Uning xarajatlari bilan solishtirish mumkin rux, zanglamaydigan po'lat, alyuminiy va hatto bir oz gil va beton umumiy tom yopish xarajatlarini hisobga olgan holda (shu jumladan tuzilishga) plitkalar.^[11]

Ba'zi tadkikotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, mis 30 yil va undan ortiq umr ko'rgan boshqa tom yopish materiallariga qaraganda hayot tsikli asosida ancha tejamkor materialdir.^[11][46][47] Misning tom yopish xarajatlarini boshqa metallar, beton va gil plitkalar, shifer va bitum O'rta va uzoq muddatli (60 yoshdan 80 yoshgacha va 100 yoshdan katta bo'lgan davrlarda) mis va zanglamaydigan po'latdan o'rganilgan barcha materiallarning eng tejamkor tom yopish materiallari bo'lganligini aniqladi.^[19]

Prefabrikalash, joyida mashinani shakllantirish, mexanizatsiyalashgan tikuv va uzun chiziqli tizim kabi o'rnatish texnikasi mis tomlarini o'rnatish xarajatlarini kamaytirishga yordam beradi. O'rnatish xarajatlarini pasaytirish orqali ushbu uslublar dizaynerlarga misni o'tmishda odatdagidek yirik obro'li loyihalarni emas, balki qurilishning keng turlarini belgilashga imkon beradi.^[11][22]

Mis qoldiqlari asosiy qiymatini katta qismini saqlab qolganligi sababli, misning hayotiy tsikli xarajatlari uning qutqaruv qiymatini hisobga olganda kamayadi. Qo'shimcha ma'lumot olish uchun qarang Qayta ishlashga yaroqlilik ushbu maqoladagi bo'lim.

Sof va qotishma mis

Sof mis. Boshqa metallardan farqli o'laroq, mis tez-tez sof (99,9% Cu) aralashtirilmagan shaklida choyshab va chiziqlar uchun tom yopish, tashqi qoplama va miltillovchi joylarda qo'llaniladi.^[8]

Tempering bu metallarning pishiqligini oshirish uchun ishlatiladigan issiqlik bilan ishlov berish texnikasi. Tempers belgilaydi egiluvchanlik va shuning uchun u qanchalik yaxshi shakllanadi va qo'shimcha yordamisiz shaklini ushlab turadi.^[10] AQShda mis olti tempda mavjud: 060 yumshoq,¹⁄₈ qattiq sovuq haddelenmiş,¹⁄₄ sovuq haddelenmiş yuqori rentabellik, yarim qattiq, to'rtdan uch qismi qattiq va qattiq.^[48][49] Buyuk Britaniyada faqat uchta belgi mavjud: yumshoq, yarim qattiq va qattiq.^[22] Mis va uning qotishmalari AQShda ASTM tomonidan mis va mis qotishmalarining standart belgilarida aniqlangan; Evropada BS EN 1172 tomonidan: 1997 - "Evropada mis va mis qotishmalari"; Buyuk Britaniyada Britaniyaning CP143 standart amaliyot kodeksiga binoan: 12-qism: 1970 yil.

Sovuq haddelenmiş mis temperaturasi AQShda bino qurilishida eng mashhur bo'lib, yumshoq misga qaraganda yumshoq, ammo ancha kuchli.^[39] Sovuq haddelenmiş¹⁄₈ qattiq temperaturali mis ko'pincha tom yopish va miltillovchi moslamalar uchun tavsiya etiladi. Yuqori haroratga ega bo'lgan uyingizda choyshablari ba'zi ilovalar uchun belgilanishi mumkin.^[10][50]

Yumshoq temperaturali mis juda yumshoq va sovuq haddelenmiş misga qaraganda kengayish va qisqarish natijasida yuzaga keladigan kuchlanishlarga nisbatan kamroq qarshilik ko'rsatadi. U murakkab bezak ishlari uchun va ekstremal shakllanish zarur bo'lgan joylarda, masalan, devor orqali miltillovchi murakkab sharoitlarda ishlatiladi.

Yuqori rentabellikga ega mis uchun asosiy foydalanish miltillovchi mahsulotlarda qo'llaniladi, bu erda egiluvchanlik va quvvat ham muhimdir.

Choyshab va chiziqli misning qalinligi AQShda uning vazni kvadrat metr uchun untsiya bilan o'lchanadi. Odatda AQShda qurilishda ishlatiladigan qalinligi 12 untsiya (340 g) va 48 untsiya (1400 g) orasida. Sanoat tez-tez plitalar yoki boshqa qurilish materiallari uchun o'lchov raqamlarini yoki haqiqiy qalinligini ishlatganligi sababli, turli xil o'lchov tizimlari o'rtasida konvertatsiya qilish kerak.

Evropada oksidlanmagan fosforli arsenik bo'lmagan mis C106 belgisi bilan ishlatiladi. Mis qalinligi 0,5 dan 1,0 mm gacha (¹⁄₆₄ va ³⁄₆₄ ichida) (1,5-3,0 mm yoki ¹⁄₁₆–¹⁄₈ 0,6-0,7 mm (pardani devor qilish uchun)³⁄₁₂₈–¹⁄₃₂ in) qalinligi odatda tom yopish uchun ishlatiladi.^[11]

Qotishma mis. Mis va bronza kabi mis qotishmalari, shuningdek, uy-joy va savdo qurilish inshootlarida qo'llaniladi.^[8] Rangning o'zgarishi birinchi navbatda qotishma kimyoviy tarkibidagi farqlardan kelib chiqadi.

ASTM tomonidan ishlab chiqilgan ba'zi mashhur mis qotishmalari va ularga tegishli yagona raqamlash tizimi (UNS) raqamlari^[51] va SAE^[52] quyidagilar:

Qurilish inshootlarida ishlatiladigan mis va turli xil mis qotishmalarining ranglari.

Amalda, "bronza" atamasi rangdagi haqiqiy bronzalarga o'xshash bo'lsa, unda kalay miqdori kam yoki umuman bo'lmagan turli xil mis qotishmalari uchun ishlatilishi mumkin.

Arxitektura mis qotishmalari haqida qo'shimcha ma'lumot olish mumkin.^[53][54]

Tanlash mezonlari

Arxitektura loyihalari uchun mis va mis qotishmalari tanlanadigan mezonlarga rang, kuch, qattiqlik, charchoq va korroziyaga chidamlilik, elektr va issiqlik o'tkazuvchanligi va tayyorlanish qulayligi kiradi.^[55] Muayyan dasturlar uchun tegishli qalinlik va harorat zarur; almashtirishlar etarli darajada ishlashga olib kelishi mumkin.^[28]

Arxitektura mis odatda choyshab va chiziqlarda ishlatiladi. Strip kengligi 60 sm (24 dyuym) yoki undan kam, choyshab kengligi 60 sm (24 dyuym) dan yuqori, uzunligi 120 yoki 48 dyuym (96 yoki 120 dyuym) uzunlikda, ortiqcha spiral shaklida.

Strukturaviy mulohazalar

Mis dasturlarini to'g'ri loyihalashda strukturaviy mulohazalar muhim rol o'ynaydi. Asosiy tashvish issiqlik ta'siriga bog'liq: harorat o'zgarishi bilan bog'liq harakat va stresslar. Issiqlik effektlarini harakatlanishni oldini olish va kümülatif stresslarga qarshi turish yoki oldindan belgilangan joylarda harakatlanishni ta'minlash va shu bilan kutilgan termal stresslarni engillashtirish orqali joylashtirish mumkin.^[56]

Ozodlik haykali 80 tonna (88 qisqa tonna) mis qoplamaga ega.^[57] Nyu-York shahri, BIZ.

Shamolga qarshilik muhim tarkibiy mulohaza. Anderrayterlar laboratoriyalari (UL) mis tom tizimlarida bir qator sinovlarni o'tkazdi. 10 metrdan 10 metrgacha (3 m × 3 m) sinov panellari bo'lgan mis tikuvli tom UL 580, ko'tarilishga qarshilik sinov protokolidan o'tkazildi. Mis tizimi g'ayrioddiy deformatsiyani namoyish qilmadi, tizimli maydonchadagi bo'shliqlar bo'shashmadi va tizim UL 580 talablariga javob berdi. UL-90 belgisi berildi.^[58][59]

Qo'shilish

Mis va uning qotishmalari mexanik usullar bilan osonlikcha birlashtiriladi, masalan, siqish, stakalash, perchinlash va murvatlash; yoki yopishtirish texnikasi bilan, masalan lehim, lehim va payvandlash. Eng yaxshi qo'shilish texnikasini tanlash xizmat ko'rsatish talablari, qo'shma konfiguratsiya, tarkibiy qismlarning qalinligi va qotishma tarkibi bilan belgilanadi.

Lehimlash ichki suv o'tkazgichlari, tom yopish va miltillovchi dasturlar singari kuchli, suv o'tkazmaydigan bo'g'inlar talab qilinadigan afzal qo'shilish usuli.^[28] Lehimlangan tikuv ikki bo'lak misni bir bo'lak bo'lib kengayadigan va qisqaradigan yaxlit birlikka birlashtiradi. Yaxshi lehimli tikuvlar ko'pincha dastlabki asosiy materialdan kuchliroq va ko'p yillik xizmatni ta'minlaydi.^[59]

Mexanik mahkamlagichlar, vintlardek, murvatlar va perchinlar ko'pincha bo'g'inlar va tikuvlarni mustahkamlash uchun ishlatiladi. Lehimli tikuvlarning uzluksiz va uzoq davom etishi stress sindirishiga olib kelishi mumkin va shuning uchun ularni oldini olish kerak.^[60]Odatda 50-50 kalay-qo'rg'oshinli lehim qoplamasiz mis uchun tez-tez ishlatiladi; Qo'rg'oshin bilan qoplangan mis uchun 60-40 kalay qo'rg'oshinli lehim ishlatiladi.^[61] Ko'p qo'rg'oshinsiz sotuvchilar ham qabul qilinadi.

Yopishtiruvchi moddalar ma'lum dasturlarda ishlatilishi mumkin. Nisbatan yupqa qatlamli qotishmalar qattiq izolyatsiya vazifasini bajaradigan kontrplak yoki ko'pikning ayrim turlariga yopishtirilishi mumkin.

Lehimlash quvur va naycha mis qotishmalarini birlashtirish uchun eng maqbul usuldir. Mis metall uchastkalari erish nuqtasi Farangeytdan 800 darajadan yuqori, ammo asosiy metallarning erish nuqtasidan past bo'lgan rangli plomba moddasi bilan birlashtiriladi. Ko'zi ojiz yoki yashirin bo'g'inlar tavsiya etiladi, chunki kumush plomba moddasining ranglari kambag'allarga mos keladi.

Payvandlash mis qismlari olov yoki elektr energiyasi yoki yuqori bosim bilan samarali ravishda birgalikda eritiladigan jarayondir. Zamonaviy TIG payvandlash uskunalari tobora ko'payib borayotganligi sababli, hatto engil o'lchovli mis dekorativ elementlarini payvandlash ham qabul qilinmoqda.

O'qitish videolari fluxing bilan bog'liq va mavjud lehim texnikalar; qanday qilib tekis tikuv payvand choklarini, ikki qavatli tik turgan tikuvlarni, dumaloq tikuvlarni, vertikal choyshab mis dumaloq tikuvlarni va tikuvlarni (shu jumladan, kapalak tikuvini) qanday qilish kerak; mis kabi qalaylash, egilish, yonish va lehim.^[62]

Mastikalar

Sızdırmazlık moddalari qo'shimcha kuch talab qilinmaydigan lehimga alternativa hisoblanadi. Ko'pgina hollarda, to'g'ri mo'ljallangan mis o'rnatilishi bilan plomba moddalari kerak bo'lmasligi kerak. Ular eng yaxshisi tez-tez texnik xizmat ko'rsatishni talab qiladigan nisbatan qisqa muddatli echimdir.^[28] Qanday bo'lmasin, plomba bilan to'ldirilgan bo'g'inlar past qiya tomlari 250 mm / m dan kam (oyoq boshiga 3 dyuym) bo'lgan tikuv va mahkamlangan tikuvli tom yopish dasturlari uchun ikkinchi darajali gidroizolyatsiya vositasi sifatida muvaffaqiyatli ishlatilgan. Sızdırmazlık moddalari, asosan, misning issiqlik harakatini ta'minlash uchun mo'ljallangan bo'g'inlarda ham ishlatilishi mumkin.

Amaldagi plomba moddalari ishlab chiqaruvchi tomonidan sinovdan o'tkazilishi va mis bilan ishlashga mos ravishda belgilanishi kerak.

Umuman, butil, polisulfid, poliuretan, va boshqa noorganik yoki kauchuk asosli mastikalar mis bilan oqilona mos keladi. Akril, neopren va nitril - asosli mastikalar misni faol ravishda zanglaydi. Silikon plomba moddalari mis bilan bir muncha muvaffaqiyatli bo'ladi, ammo ularning yaroqliligi dasturdan oldin tekshirilishi kerak.^[59]

Galvanik korroziya

Mis tomi Minneapolis shahar hokimligi.

Galvanik korroziya bu elektrokimyoviy bitta metallni ishlab chiqarish jarayoni zanglaydi har ikkala metall an mavjudligida bir-biri bilan elektr aloqada bo'lganda, boshqasiga afzalroq elektrolit namlik va tuzlar kabi. Buning sababi shundaki, bir-biriga o'xshamaydigan metallar har xil elektrod potentsiali. O'xshash bo'lmagan metallar orasidagi potentsial farq pastki galvanik raqamga (ya'ni anodga) ​​ega bo'lgan metalga tezlashtirilgan hujum uchun harakatlantiruvchi kuchdir. Vaqt o'tishi bilan anod metall elektrolitda eriydi.^[59][63][64]

Metalllar galvanik raqamlarga ko'ra ularning zodagonligining sifat ko'rsatkichi sifatida joylashtirilgan. Ushbu raqamlar boshqa metallar bilan aloqa qilishda har qanday metallning korroziyaga chidamliligini belgilaydi.^[60] Ikkala metallning galvanik sonidagi bir-biriga tegishliroq kattaroq farqi korroziya uchun katta potentsialni bildiradi va qurilishda ishlatiladigan eng keng tarqalgan metallarning galvanik raqamlari quyidagicha tartiblangan:^[65] 1. alyuminiy; 2. rux; 3. po'lat; 4. temir; 5. zanglamaydigan po'latdan - faol; 6. qalay; 7. qo'rg'oshin; 8. mis; 9. zanglamaydigan po'lat - passiv.

Galvanik korroziya - bu metall tomni parvarish qilish bilan bog'liq asosiy muammo. Dengiz muhiti havo va suvdagi tuzlarning yuqori konsentratsiyasi tufayli qo'shimcha tashvish tug'diradi.^[66]

Mis eng zo'r metallardan biridir. Boshqa metallar bilan aloqa qilishda unga zarar bo'lmaydi, lekin to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aloqa qilganda ba'zi boshqa metallarning korroziyasini keltirib chiqaradi. Mis bilan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri aloqa qilishda tashvishlanadigan asosiy metallar alyuminiy, engil po'lat va ruxdir. Mis bilan alyuminiy va po'latdan yasalgan chiroqlar va galvanizli po'lat biriktirgichlardan foydalanmaslik kerak. Mis tomidan oqib chiqadigan suv alyuminiy va po'latdan yasalgan suvlarni zanglaydi.^[67][68] Ko'p hollarda misni qo'rg'oshin, qalay yoki ko'plab zanglamaydigan po'latdan ajratish shart emas.^[69]

Kontaktni oldini olishning iloji bo'lmaganda, materialni ajratishning samarali usuli talab qilinadi.^[61] Agar bo'yoq yoki qoplamalar izolyatsiyalash uchun ishlatilsa, ular ikkala metallga mos kelishi kerak. Bituminiy yoki rux xromati mis va alyuminiy o'rtasida primerlardan foydalanish mumkin. Misni temir va boshqa qora metallardan ajratib olishda bitumli, ruxli xromat yoki qizil qo'rg'oshinli astar samarali bo'lishi mumkin. Misni boshqa barcha metallardan ajratib olishda changni yutish mumkin bo'lmagan materiallar yoki plomba bilan yopishtirish yoki yopishtirish samarali bo'ladi. Qattiq ta'sir ko'rsatadigan joylarda mis va alyuminiydan tashqari, qo'rg'oshin yoki shunga o'xshash qistirma materiallaridan foydalanish kerak. Mis sirtidan oqib chiqadigan suv alyuminiy va galvanizli po'latdan ta'sirlanishining oldini olish kerak, chunki mis tuzlari izlari korroziyani tezlashtirishi mumkin.^[59][69] Ba'zi hollarda, anodlash alyuminiy deraza tizimining mulchalari kabi qalinroq alyuminiyni himoya qilishi mumkin.

Tabiiy patinalar

Mis tabiiydan o'tadi oksidlanish noyob himoya vositasini hosil qiluvchi jarayon patina metall ustida. Metall yuzasi bir qator rang o'zgarishlariga uchraydi: iridescent / losos pushti ranglaridan to'q sariq, ko'k, yashil va binafsha ranglar bilan to'qnashgan apelsin va qizil ranggacha. Oksid qalinlashganda, bu ranglar o'rnini russet va shokoladli jigarrang ranglar, zerikarli shiferli kulrang yoki qora ranglar, nihoyat och-yashil yoki ko'k-yashil rangga almashtiradi.^[19]

Misni patinatsiya qilish jarayoni juda murakkab. Dastlabki shakllanishi bilan atrof muhitga ta'sir qilishdan darhol boshlanadi mis oksidi olti oy ichida sezilarli bo'lgan konversion filmlar. Dastlab ob-havo o'zgarishi notekis bo'lishi mumkin, ammo film taxminan to'qqiz oydan keyin ham o'zgarib turadi.^[19] Birinchi bir necha yil ichida kubok va kuprik sulfid konversiya plyonkalari yuzani jigarrang ranggacha qoraytiradi va keyin zerikarli shifer kulrang yoki xira qora rangga ega bo'ladi. Ob-havoning davom etishi sulfid plyonkalarini o'zgartiradi sulfatlar, ular diqqatga sazovor ko'k-yashil yoki kulrang-yashil patinalardir.^[11][20]

Mis tomlari Baden-Vyurtemberg, Germaniya.

Patinatsiyani konversiyalash darajasi misning kislota hosil qiluvchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalardan namlik, tuz va kislota ta'siriga bog'liq. Dengiz iqlimida butun patinatsiya jarayoni etti yildan to'qqiz yilgacha davom etishi mumkin.^[20] Sanoat muhitida patinaning shakllanishi taxminan o'n besh-yigirma besh yil ichida yakuniy bosqichga etadi. Havodagi oltingugurt dioksidining past konsentratsiyasi bo'lgan toza qishloq atmosferasida, oxirgi bosqich rivojlanishi uchun o'n yildan o'ttiz yilgacha vaqt ketishi mumkin.^[20][70] Quruq muhitda namlik etarli bo'lmasa, patina umuman shakllanmasligi mumkin. Patinatsiya quruq muhitda amalga oshirilsa, u qora yoki yong'oq jigarranggacha etuklashishi mumkin. Sohil bo'yidagi hududlardan tashqari barcha muhitda suvning tezroq oqishi tufayli vertikal yuzalar uchun patentlash ko'proq vaqt talab etadi.

Mis patinalari juda nozik: atigi 0,05080-0,07620 mm (0,002000-0,003000 dyuym) qalinlikda. Shunga qaramay, ular asosiy mis metallga juda mos keladi. Dastlabki va oraliq oksid va sulfidli patina plyonkalari ayniqsa korroziyaga chidamli emas. The final sulfate patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to all forms of atmospheric corrosion and protects the underlying metal against further weathering. As patination progresses and the durable sulfate layer forms, the rate of corrosion decreases, averaging between 0.0001–0.0003 mm (3.9×10⁻⁶–1.18×10⁻⁵ in) per year. For a 0.6-millimeter-thick (0.024 in) sheet, this equates to less than 5% corrosion over a period of 100 years.^[11][71] Further information is available on copper patination.^{[28][60][72][73]}

Tugatish

Copper and its alloys can be 'finished' to embark a particular look, feel, and/or color. Tugatish sirtni mexanik ishlov berish, kimyoviy rang berish va qoplamalarni o'z ichiga oladi. These are described here.

Mechanical surface treatments. Several types of mechanical surface treatments exist. Mill finishes are derived by normal production processes, such as rolling, extrusion, or casting. "Buffeted" finishes impart bright mirror-like appearances after grinding, polishing, and buffing. "Directional textured" finishes provide a smooth, velvety satin sheen in a continuous pattern of fine nearly parallel scratches. "Non-directional textured matte" finishes achieve a rough texture, primarily on castings, as spray sand or metal shot are applied under high pressure. And "patterned" finishes, made by pressing a copper alloy sheet between two rolls, produce a textured and embossed look.

Chemically induced patina. Architects sometimes request a particular patina color at installation. Factory-applied chemically induced pre-patination systems can produce a wide range of colored finishes similar to natural patination. Pre-patinated copper is particularly useful in repairs when there is need to provide close color matches to old copper roofs.^[74] Pre-patination is also considered in some modern building materials, such as vertical cladding, soffits, and gutters where patination is desired but would not ordinarily occur.^[11]

Metalllarning kimyoviy ranglanishi is an art involving craftsmanship and experience. Coloring techniques depend upon time, temperature, surface preparation, humidity and other variables.^[38] Pre-patinated copper sheets are produced by fabricators under controlled environments using patented chemical processes. Green patina finishes are primarily developed using acid chloride or acid sulfate. Bilan davolash usullari ammoniy xlorid (sal ammoniac ), kubikli xlor /xlorid kislota va ammoniy sulfat are somewhat successful.^[75][76] Haykal finishes can be produced in light, medium, and dark brown, depending on the concentration and number of coloring applications. One advantage is that the treatment disguises surface markings on bright mill finish copper and can advance the natural patination process.^[11][38]

Because of the number of variables involved, chemically induced patinas are prone to problems such as a lack of adhesion, excessive staining of adjacent materials, and inability to achieve reasonable color uniformity over large surface areas. Chemical patination applied in the field is not recommended due to variations in temperature, humidity, and chemical requirements.^[59] Warranties are prudent when purchasing pre-patinated copper for architectural projects.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Useful techniques and recipes for coloring copper, brass, yellow-brass, bronze, cast bronze, gilding metal, along with various physical and chemical textural finishes are available.^[77]

Coatings. Clear coatings preserve the natural color, warmth and metallic tone of copper alloys. However, particularly on exterior applications, they introduce maintenance into what is naturally a maintenance-free material. They are organic chemicals that are dry at ambient temperatures or require heat for curing or solvent evaporation. Examples of clear organic coatings include alkid, akril, cellulose acetate butyrate, epoksi, nitroselüloz, silikon va uretan. Further details are available.^[78][79]

Oils and waxes exclude moisture from copper surfaces and simultaneously enhance their appearance by bringing out a rich luster and depth of color. Oiling is typically used to prolong the time exposed copper remains in a brown to black tone. It will not keep copper shiny on an exterior installation. Oils and waxes offer short-term protection for exterior applications and longer-term protection for interior applications.^[80]

Oiling predominates for roofing and flashing work. The most popular oils are Lemon Oil, U.S.P., Lemon Grass Oil, Native E.I., paraffin oils, zig'ir moyi va kastor yog'i. On copper roofing or flashing, reapplication as infrequently as once every three years can effectively retard patina formation. In arid climates, the maximum span between oilings may be extended to from three to five years.

Waxing is generally reserved for architectural components subject to close inspection and/or traffic. Mixes considered satisfactory include Karnauba mumi va yog'och turpentin, yoki asal mumi va yog'och turpentin, or paste waxes.^[76]

Opaque paint coatings are used primarily for work applied over copper when substrate integrity and longevity are desired but a specific color other than the naturally occurring copper hues is required.^[81]

Zinc-tin coatings are an alternative to lead coatings since they have approximately the same appearance and workability.^[82][83]

Vitreusli emal coatings are used primarily for art work over copper.

More details on copper finishes are available.^{[84][85][86][87]}

Ilovalar

Example of architectural copper work, showing copper dome with copper finial, winding spiral copper roof awning, and a copper railing.

Craftsmen and designers utilize copper's inherent benefits to build aesthetically pleasing and long-lasting building systems. Kimdan soborlar ga qal'alar and from homes to offices, copper is used in many products: low-sloped and pitched roofs, soffits, fascias, chaqmoqlar, gutters, suv o'tkazgichlari, building expansion joints, gumbazlar, shpillar va tonozlar. Copper is also used to clad walls and other surfaces in the exterior and interior environment.^[10][11][88]

Tom yopish

Copper offers a unique character and durability as a roofing material. Its appearance can complement any style of building, from traditional to modern. Its warmth and beauty make it a desirable material for many architects. Copper also satisfies demands of architects and building owners regarding lifetime cost, ease of fabrication, low maintenance, and environmental friendliness.

New copper roof installation.

The installation of copper roofing is a craft requiring experienced installers. Uning egiluvchanlik va egiluvchanlik make it a compatible material to form over irregular roof structures. It is easy to hammer or work into watertight designs without caulk or gaskets.^[89] Domes and other curved roof shapes are readily handled with copper.

When properly designed and installed, a copper roof provides an economical, long-term roofing solution. Tests on European copper roofs from the 18th century showed that, in theory, copper roofs can last one thousand years.^[19]

New copper roof of Sinto outdoor altar.

Mis tom yopish tizimlarining yana bir afzalligi shundaki, ularni ta'mirlash nisbatan oson. For small pits or cracks, affected areas can be cleaned and filled with lehim. For larger areas, patches can be cut and soldered into place. For major areas, the affected copper can be cut out and replaced using a flat locked soldered seam.^[28]

Copper roofs can be designed to meet or surpass other materials in terms of energy savings. A vented copper roof assembly at Oak Ridge National Laboratories (U.S.) substantially reduced heat gain versus stone-coated steel shingle (SR246E90) or asfalt shingil (SR093E89), resulting in lower energy costs.^[90]

Types of copper roofs include:^[91]

Standing seam roofing is composed of preformed or field-formed pans. The pans run parallel to the slope of the roof and are joined to adjacent pans with double-locked standing seams. Copper cleats locked into these seams secure the roofing to the deck.

Batten seam roofing consists of copper pans running parallel to the roof slope, separated by wood battens. Battens are covered with copper caps that are loose-locked into adjacent pans to help to secure the roofing. Cleats attached to the battens secure the roofing pans. Transverse seams are required to join ends of preformed pans.

Horizontal seam roofs, also called the Bermuda style, consist of copper pans where the long dimension runs horizontally across a roof, attached to horizontal wood nailers. A step is used at each nailer to allow adjacent pans to lock effectively. The height and spacing of the steps enable different appearances.

A common design for a chevron roof is based on a batten seam construction to which auxiliary battens are attached. With proper design, decorative battens can have almost any shape or size and run in any direction.

Flat locked and soldered seam roofing systems are typically used on flat or low-pitched roofs. They are also used on curved surfaces such as domes and barrel vaults.

Flat seam unsoldered copper roofing is a shingle-like option for high slope applications.

Mansard roofs are used on vertical or nearly vertical surfaces. For the most part, these roofs are based on standing seam or batten seam construction.

Long-pan systems (pans and seam lengths greater than 3 m or 10 feet) accommodate the cumulative expansion stress over long spans of copper sheets. These installations can be complicated due to the length of roof pan versus seam length, cleat design and spacing, and the physical expansion characteristics of copper sheets. This expansion must be accommodated by fixing the pan at one end (which accumulates the expansion at the loose end) or by fixing the center of the pan (which accumulates half of the expansion at both free ends).^[59][92]In addition to panels, copper roof tiles can add uniqueness to a roofing system. They can be used on any roof shape and in all types of climates.^[93]

Miltillovchi

While most modern construction materials are fairly resistant to moisture penetration, many joints between masonry units, panels, and architectural features are not. The effects of natural movement due to settlement, expansion, and contraction may eventually lead to leaks.

Copper is an excellent material for miltillovchi because of its malleability, strength, solderability, workability, high resistance to the caustic effects of mortars and hostile environments, and long service life. This enables a roof to be built without weak points. Since flashing is expensive to replace if it fails, copper's long life is a major cost advantage.^[19][64]

Sovuq haddelenmiş ¹⁄₈-inch (3.2 mm) hard temper copper is recommended for most flashing applications. This material offers more resistance than soft copper to the stresses of expansion and contraction. Soft copper can be specified where extreme forming is required, such as in complicated roof shapes. Thermal movement in flashings is prevented or is permitted only at predetermined locations.^[61]

Flashing installed incorrectly can promote line corrosion and shorten the life of valley flashing, especially in acidic environments. The risk is most prevalent at the leading edge of shingles where the shingle edges rest on the copper flashing.^[58][59]

Through-wall flashing diverts moisture that has entered the wall before it can cause damage. Counterflashing diverts water to the base flashing, which, in turn, diverts it to other materials.

Various types of copper flashings and copings exist. Diagramatic explanations are available.^[94][95][96]

Gutters and downspouts

Copper gutter system showing half round copper gutters, radius copper guttering, copper leader head, round copper downspout pipe, decorative copper gutter hangers.

Leaking gutters va suv o'tkazgichlari can cause serious damage to a building's interior and exterior. Copper is a good choice for gutters and downspouts because it makes strong leak-proof joints. Gutters and downspouts made with copper are expected to outlast other metal materials and plastics. Even in corrosion-prone dengiz qirg'og'i environments or in areas with kislotali yomg'ir yoki tutun, copper gutters and downspouts can provide 50 years or more of service.^[97][98]

Downspouts can be plain or corrugated, round or rectangular. sixteen-or-twenty-ounce (450 or 570 g) cold rolled copper is typically used. Decorative designs are also available.

Gargoyle rain spout roof scupper combination fashioned from pure copper.

Hung copper gutters are supported by brass- or copper brackets or hangers, or by brass straps. Copper gutter linings are often built into wood framed supporting structures. Scuppers are used to provide an outlet through parapet walls or gravel stops on flat and built-up roofs to allow drainage of excess water. They can be used in conjunction with gutters and downspouts to divert water flow to the desired location. Copper roof sumps are generally used for draining small roof areas such as canopies. Roof sump drains are not recommended for general roof drainage systems.

Custom-made copper leader head.

One of the disadvantages of copper is its propensity to stain light-colored building materials, such as marmar yoki ohaktosh.^[19] Green staining is particularly visible on light-colored surfaces. Lead-coated copper can result in a black or gray stain that may blend well with lighter building materials. Staining can be reduced by collecting runoff in gutters and directing it away from the building via downspouts or by designing drip edges to help reduce the amount of copper laden moisture that comes into contact with material below. Coating the adjacent surface of the porous material with a clear silikon sealant also reduces staining. Staining may not develop in areas of rapid run-off due to the short dwell time of water on the copper.

Domes, spires and vaults

Copper dome made with standing seam copper panels and with a copper finial pineapple mounted on top. The copper finial is handmade from uncoated copper and the pineapple leaves are patinated copper.

Copper belfry of St. Laurentius church, Yomon Neuenahr-Ahrweiler

There are many types of copper gumbazlar, shpillar va tonozlar, both with simple geometries or complex curved surfaces and multi-faceted designs.^[99] Examples include circular domes with diagonal flat seam systems, circular domes with standing seam systems, circular domes with flat seam systems, conical spires, flat seam roofing on octagonal spires, standing seam barrel vaults, and flat seam barrel vaults. Information about steps for dome panel layouts^[100] and specifications for copper constructions^[101] mavjud.

Copper-clad spire at the Saïd Business School, Oxford, U.K., is a modern interpretation of "Dreaming Spires."

Wall cladding

Copper cladding has become popular in modern architecture. The technology enables architects to incorporate visually desirable features into their designs, such as embossed or shaped-metal cladding.

Cladding enables structures to be made with much less weight than solid copper. Four-millimeter-thick (⁵⁄₃₂ in) composites weigh 10 kgf/m² (2.08 pounds per square foot), only 35% as much as solid copper of the same thickness.^[102]

Copper cladding is used in building exteriors and indoor environments. On building exteriors, copper cladding sheets, shingles, and pre-fabricated panels shield buildings from the elements, acting as first line of defenses against wind, dust, and water. The cladding is lightweight, durable, and corrosion resistant, which is particularly important for large buildings.^[103] Common interior applications include lobbi devorlar, soffits, column facings, and interior walls of elevator cabs.

Copper cladding can be cut, routed, sawed, filed, drilled, screwed, welded, and curved to form complex shapes. A variety of finishes and colors are available.

Flat, circular, and unusually shaped walls can be covered with copper cladding. Most are field-formed from sheet material. They can also be pre-manufactured. In addition, engineered systems such as insulated panels, non-insulated honeycomb panels, copper screen panels, and structural wall claddings are available. Horizontal copper siding provides a relatively flat appearance with fine horizontal lines. Beveled copper panels have depth for heavy-shadowed effects. Flat siding has minimal shadows. Structural panels are designed to be attached directly to a wall structure without the use of a continuous substrate. Diagonal flat lock panels are used on curved surfaces, such as domes, spires and vaults. Horizontal flat lock panels are basically identical to flat seam roofing applied on a vertical surface. Copper screen panels are a lightweight finish screen that can be perforated or have shaped openings to function as sun or decorative screens. A copper alloy curtain wall is a non-structural outer building covering that keeps out weather.^[104] Composite copper cladding is made by attaching copper sheeting to both sides of rigid termoplastik varaq.

The former British Overseas Aircraft Corporation headquarters building in Glazgo is clad with copper.

Peckham Library, in London, won the 2000 Stirling Award for Architectural Innovation, the 2001 Copper Cladding Award, and the 2002 Civic Trust Award for excellence in public architecture.

Several different copper facade cladding systems are available:

Seaming technique. This is a vertical or horizontal classical cladding construction used in copper roof and façade designs. Available in sheets and strips, the cladding is fixed with clips. Since water tightness may not be a concern on vertical surfaces, angle standing seams are often sufficient. Double lock standing seams are often not necessary. Links to photographs of horizontal and vertical standing and flat lock seams at the Debretsen universiteti 's Copper Gateway in Vengriya^[105] and of pre-oxidized copper clad seamed facades at the Hotel Crowne Plaza Milano, in Milan, Italiya,^[106] mavjud.

System shingles. Shingles are pre-manufactured rectangular or square flat tiles for roofs, walls, and individual building components. They have 180⁰ folds along all four borders – two folds towards the external side and two towards the internal side. The shingles are interlocked during installation. The fastening is hidden with stainless steel or copper clips on wood sheeting or trapezoidal panels. Machine notching and folding ensures that the shingles have uniform dimensions. Links to pictoral examples of copper shingles in an exterior^[107] va ichki makon^[108] environment are available.

Panels. Panels are sheets of pre-profiled copper with lengths up to 4–5 m (13–16 ft) and standard widths up to 500 mm (20 in). They are two-sided cladding elements that can be with or without an end base. Assembly is performed using the tongue and groove principle or by overlapping. Panels can be assembled vertically, horizontally, or diagonally. There are three basic forms: tongue and groove panels laid vertically as level surface facade cladding; tongue and groove panels laid horizontally as level surface facade cladding; and custom panels laid in different directions with visible or masked fastening, flush against the surface or overlapping. Links to representative photographs of golden-colored^[109] and patinated-green panels^[110] mavjud.

System cassettes. This is a rigid rectangular ventilated wall system consisting of curved or flat metal panels mounted and secured to a supporting structure. All four borders are pre-folded at the factory. Folded edges on every side allow large sheet metal parts to lie even with the cladding surface. Fixing is usually by riveting, screwing, or by using angle brackets or bolt hooks to fix the cassettes directly to the substrate. System cassettes are pre-profiled to meet specific architectural requirements. Links to representative photographs of cassette cladding are available.^[111][112]

Profiled sheets. Profiled sheets are well suited for covering large cladding surfaces without joints because of their regular, unimposing profiles. Available in a wide variety of shapes, they are well-suited for new flat roofs, façade and pitched roofs, and renovation work. Profiles available include: sinusoidal wave corrugated profiles; trapezoidal profiles with various geometries; and custom profiles with special geometry and edges. They can be pre-manufactured and specified with embossed patterns or other designs.

Special shapes. Special shaped façades are available to impart desired visual effects. Perforated metal sheets are available with a variety of shapes (round, square, oblong, etc.) and arrangements (rectangular, diagonal, parallel width, staggered, etc.). They can be designed to create subtle patterns, 'super graphics,' and text. Mesh and textile structures are also available. Links to photographs of special-shaped cladded buildings are available.^{[113][114][115]}

Building expansion joints

Designing for the movement of building components due to temperature, loads, and settlement is an important part of architectural detailing. Building expansion joints provide barriers to the exterior and cover spaces between components. Copper is an excellent material for expansion joints because it is easy to form and lasts a long time. Details regarding roof conditions, roof edges, floors, are available.^[116]

Indoor design

Architectural copper cladding in the interior of the Capital Museum, Beijing, People's Republic of China.

Copper aesthetically enhances interior wall systems, ceilings, fixtures, furniture, and hardware by evoking an atmosphere of warmth, tranquility, and calm. Regarding performance advantages, it is lightweight, fire resistant, durable, workable, and non-organic (it does not off-gas). Typical copper-based interiors include panels, shingil, screens, bezaklar, fixtures, and other decorative enhancements.^[10]

Cathedral-Basilica Mary Queen of the World, in Montreal. At the transept crossing in front of the main altar stands the Baldacchino with red copper, made in Rome in 1900.

Since copper surfaces kill pathogenic microbes, architects who design public facilities, such as kasalxonalar va ommaviy tranzit facilities, look to copper products as a xalq salomatligi foyda olish.^[8][41] In recent years, copper countertops, range hoods, lavabolar, tutqichlar, doorknobs, kranlar va mebel embellishments have become trendy – both for their appearance as well as for their mikroblarga qarshi xususiyatlari. (Asosiy maqolaga qarang: Antimikrobiyal mis-qotishma tegadigan yuzalar ).

Copper is joined in indoor environments by butt welding, soldering, rivets, nails, screws, bolting, standing seams, lap seams (with and without fasteners), flat seams, bolted flanges, splines, flush laps, and batten seams.^[117]

Yashil binolar

Barqaror materials are key elements of yashil binolar. Some benefits of sustainable materials include durability, long life, recyclability, and energy and thermal efficiency. Copper ranks highly in all of these categories.

Copper is one of nature's most efficient thermal and electrical conductors, which helps to conserve energy. Because of its high thermal conductivity, it is used extensively in building heating systems, direct exchange issiqlik nasoslari va quyosh energiyasi and hot water equipment. Its high electrical conductivity increases the efficiency of yoritish, elektr motorlar, fans, and appliances, making a building's operation more cost effective with less energy and environmental impact.^[118]

Because copper has a better thermal conductivity rating than usual façade and roofing materials, it is well-suited to solar thermal façade systems. The first commercial application of a fully integrated solar thermal copper façade system was installed at the Pori Public Swimming Complex in Finlyandiya. The installation is an urban example of sustainability and uglerod chiqindilari kamaytirish. The solar façade works in conjunction with roof collectors and is supplemented by roof-mounted fotoelektrlar that provide 120,000 kWh of heat, an amount of energy equivalent to that used annually by six average family houses in cold-climate Finland.^[119]

One standard in the Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari Yashil qurilish kengashi (USGBC)'s Energiya va atrof-muhitni loyihalashda etakchilik rating system (LEED ) requires that newly constructed buildings include materials containing pre- and post-consumer recycled content. Most copper products used in construction (except electrical materials that require highly refined virgin copper) contain a large percentage of recycled content. Qarang: Copper in architecture#Recycling.

Mukofotlar

Award programs highlight copper architecture installations in Canada and the U.S.^[120] va Evropada.^[121] An International Copper and the Home Competition also exists.^[122] Judged by architecture and copper industry experts, criteria for the awards programs include copper in building design, craft of copper installation, excellence in innovation, and historic renovation.

Shuningdek qarang

• Qurilish materiallari
• Barqaror me'morchilik
• Yashil binolar

Adabiyotlar