Tillar evolyutsiyasi - Evolution of languages

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The tillarning evolyutsiyasi yoki til tarixi asosida tiklangan tillarning evolyutsiyasi, ajralib chiqishi va rivojlanishini o'z ichiga oladi glotoxronologiya, qiyosiy tilshunoslik, yozma yozuvlar va boshqalar tarixiy tilshunoslik texnikalar. The tilning kelib chiqishi ba'zi bir tillarni taxminiy ravishda orqaga qaytarish bilan qizg'in bahsli mavzu Paleolit. Biroq, arxeologik va yozma yozuvlar til tarixini qadimgi davrlarga va Neolitik.

Vaqt o'tishi bilan tillarning tarqalishi sezilarli darajada o'zgardi. Asosiy mintaqaviy tillar kabi Elamit, So'g'diycha, Koine Yunon, yoki Nahuatl qadimgi, klassikadan keyingi va zamonaviy zamonaviy davrlarning kuchlari muvozanati, nizolar va migratsiya o'zgarishi tufayli boshqalar tomonidan bosib o'tilgan. 20-asr oxirida frantsuz va nemis tillarining ingliz tiliga nisbatan obro'si pasayganligi sababli, tillarning nisbiy holati ham o'zgardi.

Tarixdan oldingi tarix

Paleolit ​​(200,000-20,000 BP)

Turli xil Nilo-sahara tillari tomonidan birinchi bo'lib oila sifatida taklif qilingan Jozef Grinberg 1963 yilda paydo bo'lishi mumkin Yuqori paleolit.[1] Zamonaviy Nilo-Saxara tillarida uch tomonlama sanoq tizimining mavjudligini inobatga olgan holda, tilshunos N.A.Blench proto-tilda ismlarning klassifikatorini chiqarib, "nam davr" davrida Sahroi suv oqimlari asosida tarqatdi. Neolitik subpluvial.[2]

Mezolit (20000-8000 BP)

Qo'shimcha ma'lumotlar: Afroasiatik Urgeymat
Afroasiatikning postulyatsion kengayishi

1990 va 2000 yillarda tadqiqotchilar ushbu qurilmani qayta tiklashga harakat qilishdi Proto-afroasiatik til, ehtimol 18000 dan 12000 yil oldin paydo bo'lgan Levant, dan kelib chiqqan bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qilmoqda Natufiya madaniyati va turli tillarga ajralishdan oldin Afrikaga ko'chib o'tdilar.[3][4]

Neolitik (12000-6500 bp)

2000-yillarda aholi genetikasi bo'yicha olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, ularning eng qadimgi o'tmishdoshlari Dravid tillari bundan 15000-10000 yil oldin janubi-g'arbiy Eronda Hindistonga tarqalgandan oldin gapirishgan bo'lishi mumkin.[5] The Sharqiy Sudan taxminan 7000 yil oldin Nilo-Saxara tillari guruhi birlashgan bo'lishi mumkin.[1]

Aryon Rodrigues a ning paydo bo'lishini taxmin qilmoqda Protopupiya tili o'rtasida Guaporé va Aripuana daryolar, Madeyra daryosi havzasi (zamonaviy Braziliya shtatiga mos keladi Rondoniya taxminan 5000 yil oldin.[6]

Qadimgi tarix (miloddan avvalgi 3000 yil - 500 yil)

Afrika

Miloddan avvalgi XI asrda Levantdan boshlab, Finikiya erta savdo davlati va mustamlaka kuchiga aylanib, o'z tilini hozirgi Liviya, Tunis, Jazoir va Marokashga, shuningdek Ispaniyaning janubiy qismiga yoydi. Balear orollari, Sardiniya va Korsikaning qirg'oq mintaqalari hamda Kipr oroli. The Finikiya alifbosi eng qadimgi abjad undosh alifbosi - va oldingi Lotin alifbosi.[7]

Finikiya tilining kengayishi

3000 dan 4000 yil oldin, Proto-Bantu, Kamerun yaqinidagi Markaziy va G'arbiy Afrikaning ba'zi joylarida boshqalarga ajratilgan Bantoid tillari boshlanishi bilan Bantu kengayishi.[8]Yaxshi hujjatlashtirilgan tillar, asosan, Shimoliy Afrikada yoki O'rta er dengizi dunyosining boshqa qismlari bilan o'zaro aloqada bo'lgan murakkab davlatlar tarkibida saqlanadi. Punik 8-asrdan 6-asrgacha Finikiyalik bir variant, ehtimol, ikki asr davomida hukmron tilga aylandi Karfagen imperiyasi.[9] Miloddan avvalgi 146 yilda imperiya mag'lubiyatga uchragunga qadar Finikiyalik boshqa sprachraum bilan uzoq muddatli aloqalarni saqlab turdi, ammo vaqt o'tishi bilan qo'shni Berber tillaridan ko'proq so'zlar va ismlarni qabul qila boshladi. Rim istilochilari monumental Karfagen yozuvlarini qadrlashdi, ularni tarjima qilib, Berber kutubxonalariga sovg'a qilishdi. Zamonaviy olimlar tomonidan lotin-punik deb nomlangan til shakli asrlar osha davom etdi, shu so'z tarkibi va fonologiyasi bilan, lekin yozuv lotin yozuvida olib borildi.[10]

Tabiati Proto-Berber va paydo bo'lishi Berber tillari tushunarsiz va mezolit davri boshlangan bo'lishi mumkin Kapsiya madaniyati.[11] Rojer Blench Proto-Berber ma'ruzachilari Shimoliy Afrikaga Nil daryosi vodiysidan 4000-5000 yil oldin, Afroasiatikdan ajralib chiqib, tarqalib ketganligini taxmin qilmoqda.[12] Ushbu modelda erta berberlar Karfagen Punik va Lotin bilan aloqada bo'lgan ko'plab so'zlarni o'zlashtirdilar. Faqat Zenaga tili Punik kredit so'zlari yo'q.

Nubiya tsivilizatsiyasi Nil daryosining janubiy qismida gullab-yashnab, katta savdo-sotiq va avval Misr bilan, so'ngra Rim bilan aloqalarni saqlab qoldi. 700 yil davomida odamlar Kush qirolligi gapirdi Meroit tili Miloddan avvalgi 300 yildan Milodiy 400 yilgacha. Ga yozilgan Meroit alifbosi yoki ierogliflar, ikki tilli matnlarning kamligi tufayli til juda yaxshi tushunilmaydi. Natijada, zamonaviy tilshunoslar bu til Nilo-Saxara yoki Afroasiatikmi deb doimiy ravishda bahslashmoqdalar.[13]

Davomida Migratsiya davri ning parchalanishiga olib keldi Rim imperiyasi, German guruhlari qisqa vaqt ichida Evropadan Shimoliy Afrikaga tarqaldi. Yomon attestatsiyadan o'tgan ma'ruzachilar, lekin ehtimol Sharqiy german Vandalik til Ispaniya va Portugaliyaning katta qismini o'z nazorati ostiga oldi va keyinchalik 430-yillarda Shimoliy Afrikaga o'tib, 6-asrga qadar hududni ushlab turdi, ular 536 yilda harbiy mag'lubiyatga uchraganidan keyin Vizantiya hukmronligi ostida edi.

Davomida vandallar Migratsiya davri.

Amerika

The Alyaska ona tili markazi kamida 4000 yil oldin eskimo va aleyt tillarining eskimo va aleyt filiallariga bo'lingan umumiy ajdodlar tili ekanligini ko'rsatadi.[14][15]

Mesoamerikada Oto-mangue tillari Miloddan avvalgi 2000 yilgacha mavjud bo'lgan, ehtimol bir necha ming yil oldin Texuan vodiysidagi Texuan madaniyatida paydo bo'lgan. Shifrlanmagan Zapotek yozuvi Mesoamerika yozuvining eng qadimgi asarini anglatadi.[16]

Osiyo

Qadimgi davrlarda Osiyoda bir qancha yirik va uzoq davom etgan tsivilizatsiyalar paydo bo'lgan. Nisbatan siyrak qiyosiy qiyosiy lingvistik tadqiqotlar shuni anglatadiki, Dravid tillari hozirda janubiy Hindistonda gapiriladi va Pokistonning ozgina qismi yaxshi tushunilmaydi. Proto-Dravidian, hindu-oriy tillari tomonidan qisman ko'chib ketguncha, miloddan avvalgi 4-ming yillikdayoq Hindistonda gaplashgan.[17] The Hind vodiysi tsivilizatsiyasi odatda Dravidian nutqi sifatida talqin etiladi.[18] Hind-oriy ma'ruzachilari shimoliy Hindiston tekisliklarini egallab olishni boshladi Sanskritizatsiya miloddan avvalgi 1500 yildan keyin.

Benno Landsberger va boshqa assiriologlar taxminlarga ko'ra tasniflanmagan tilga atama berishadi Proto-evfrat davomida janubiy Iroqda gapirishgan bo'lishi mumkin Ubaid davri miloddan avvalgi 5300 dan 4700 gacha, ehtimol tegishli bo'lgan odamlar tomonidan Samarran madaniyati.[19]

The Gut xalqi, dan ko'chmanchi bosqinchilar guruhi Zagros tog'lari tashkil etdi Gutlar sulolasi va hukmronlik qildi Shumer. The Gut tili Gutian shohlarining ismlari bilan birga Shumeriya planshetlarida keltirilgan. Tilshunos V.B. Xenning ga ulanishni taklif qildi Toxar tili podshohlarning ismlaridagi o'xshash ishlarning oxiriga asoslangan.[20] Biroq, bu nazariya aksariyat olimlar tomonidan qabul qilinmadi.[21]

Yomon tasdiqlangan boshqa tillarga semit tillari kiradi Amorit tili bronza davri qabilalari tomonidan aytilgan. Uning g'arbiy lahjasi Ugaritik orqasida qoldi Ugaritik matnlar, 1929 yilda Suriyaning Ugarit shahrida frantsuz arxeologlari tomonidan topilgan. 50 dan ortiq Ugaritik epik she'rlari, shuningdek, adabiy asarlar Baal tsikli (ichida joylashgan Luvr ) ugarit yozuvining katta qismini tashkil qiladi. Miloddan avvalgi 18-4 asrlarda shumer va akkad tilida so'zlashuvchilar bilan ham aloqada bo'lgan Kassit, Mesopotamiya va Zagros tog'larida yashab, bosqinchilar tomonidan ag'darilguncha Elamiylar.

Ning ko'tarilishi Elamit imperiyasi ko'tarilgan Elam tili va miloddan avvalgi 2600 va 330 yillar orasida mashhurlik. Hammasi bo'lib 130 ta glif moslashtirildi Akkad mixxat yozuvi bo'lib xizmat qilmoq Elamit mixxat yozuvi. Ilgari, miloddan avvalgi 3100 va 2900 yillarda proto-elam yozuvlari Eronda birinchi yozuvlardir. 20000 ta Elamit tabletkalari ma'lum bo'lsa-da, tilni izohlash qiyin va uni til izolyatsiyasi deb taxmin qilish mumkin.[22]

Chiziqli elamit qirol yozuvi Kutik-Inshushinak, "Table du Lion", Luvr muzeyi Sb 17.

Dunyodagi asosiy tillardan biri, Hurro-urartian yo'q bo'lib ketishdan oldin Anadolu va Mesopotomiyada gapirishgan. Bu atigi ikki tilning qoldiqlaridan ma'lum. Hurrian Armanistonda paydo bo'lgan va tarqalishi mumkin Mitanni miloddan avvalgi 2-ming yillikda Mesopotamiya shimoliy qismida qirollik.[23] Til qurboniga aylandi Bronza davri qulashi bilan birga miloddan avvalgi 13-asrda Ugaritik va Hitt.

Tabletka. Xudoga bag'ishlanish Nergal Hurriyat shohi Atalshen, Urkish va Navar shohi tomonidan, Xabur Bassin, miloddan avvalgi 2000 yil. Luvr muzeyi AO 5678.
"Nergal Xavalumning xo'jayini, g'amxo'r cho'pon Atal-shen, Urkesh shohi va Sadar-mat o'g'li Navar shoh, Nergal ibodatxonasining quruvchisi, qarshilikni yenggan. Shamash va Ishtar ushbu planshetni olib tashlagan kishining urug'ini yo'q qiling. Shaum-shen usta. "[24]

Kavkazda proto-arman tilining so'zlashuv versiyalari miloddan avvalgi 3-ming yillikda paydo bo'lgan Hind-oriyan Mitanni, Anatoliy tillari kabi Luvian va Hitt, Semit tillari kabi Akkad va Oromiy, va Hurrio-urartian tillar. Miloddan avvalgi II asrda hozirgi Armaniston bir tilda armancha gapirgan.[25] Biroq, tilning yozma shakllari V asrda Injil tarjimasiga qadar paydo bo'lmaydi.[26]

Armanistonning shimolida va g'arbida, Proto-Kartvelian bilan ajralib chiqa boshladi Qadimgi gruzin miloddan avvalgi 1-ming yillikda paydo bo'lgan Iberiya qirolligi.[27] Oromiy IV asrda nasroniylikni qabul qilguniga qadar mintaqaning din va adabiyot tili bo'lib qoldi.[28]

Kichik Osiyo qadimgi zamonlarda tilshunoslikning xilma-xilligi mintaqasi bo'lgan. Insonlar Galatiya markaziy Anadoluda Kelt tilida gaplashdi Galat tili miloddan avvalgi III asrdan milodiy IV asrda yo'q bo'lib ketguniga qadar yoki ehtimol VI asrga qadar.[29] Frigiya, aftidan yunonning yaqin qarindoshi miloddan avvalgi VIII asrda paydo bo'lgan va milodning V asrida, paleo-frigiya yozuvlari finikiyaliklardan olingan yozuvda yozilgan va keyinchalik yunon yozuvida yozilgan.[30]Xattianlar yilda Kichik Osiyo hind-evropa bo'lmagan aglutinativ haqida gapirdi Xattik tili miloddan avvalgi III va II ming yilliklar oralig'ida, xettlar tomonidan singib ketguncha.[31] Kaskian so'zlagan Kaskiyaliklar Bronza davrida xuddi shunday vaqtda Qora dengiz bo'yidagi tog'larda, keyinchalik prototip versiyasi sifatida Cherkes va Abxaz tili.[32]

The Kimmerlar ko'chmanchi hind-evropa xalqi hujum qilgan bo'lishi mumkin Urartu mavzusining holati Neo-Ossuriya imperiyasi miloddan avvalgi 714 yil atrofida, garchi Ossuriya yozuvlarida ozgina ismlar saqlanib qolgan bo'lsa ham.[33]Tilshunoslar va antropologlar kelib chiqishi haqida bahslashmoqdalar Turkiy xalqlar va Turkiy tillar. Robbeetsning so'zlariga ko'ra prototurklar G'arbda yashagan prototranseyrasiy tillar jamoasidan kelib chiqqan. Liao daryosi Havza (zamonaviy Manchuriya ) taxminan miloddan avvalgi 6000 yilda va bilan aniqlanishi mumkin Xinglongva madaniyati.[34] Ular shunday yashagan qishloq xo'jaligi mutaxassislari, va keyinchalik qabul qilingan ko'chmanchi turmush tarzi va g'arbga ko'chishni boshladi.[34] Prototurk 2500 yil oldin Sharqiy Osiyo shimolida gapirishgan bo'lishi mumkin.[35]

Tilshunoslar qachon va qaerda ekanligi haqida ixtilof qiladilar Tungus tillari shimoliy Osiyoda paydo bo'ldi, prototungus tilida so'zlashishni taklif qildi Manchuriya miloddan avvalgi 500 yildan va miloddan 500 yilgacha yoki taxminan shu vaqt oralig'ida Baykal ko'li. (Menjes 1968 yil, Xelimskiy 1985 yil)[36] Ba'zi manbalarda tasvirlangan Dongxu xalqi Miloddan avvalgi VII asr va II asrlar oralig'ida Manjuriyada Proto-Tungusik sifatida qayd etilgan.[37] Shimoliy Tungusik tarkibida 2000 yildan ko'proq vaqt oldin sharqiy Sibirda har ikkala tilda gaplashganda qabul qilingan ko'plab eskimo-aleyt so'zlari mavjud.[38]

Markaziy Osiyoda Qadimgi forscha ekanligini ko'rsatib bering So'g'diy tili davrida paydo bo'lgan edi Axemidlar imperiyasi, ammo qadimgi So'g'diycha haqida hech qanday yozuvlar mavjud emas.

Qayta qurish, matn yozuvlari va arxeologik dalillar Sharqiy Osiyodagi tillarning kelib chiqishiga tobora ko'proq oydinlik kiritmoqda. Tomonidan 2014 yilda nashr etilgan arxeologik va lingvistik dalillarga ko'ra Rojer Blench, Tayvanda qirg'oqdan baliq ovlashga kelgan odamlar yashagan Fujian Dapenkeng madaniyati tariq etishtirish Longshan madaniyati yilda Shandun va ehtimol Guangdongning qirg'oq hududlari.[39] Tayvan, ehtimol Tinch okeani, Hind okeani va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyo bo'ylab tarqalgan proto-avstrones tillarining vatani bo'lgan.

Proto-Japonic Yaponiyaga miloddan avvalgi II asrda Tinch okeanining orollaridan yoki Osiyodagi materikdan kelgan Yayoi davri, oldingi tillarni almashtirish Jōmon Proto-Aynuning bir shakli bo'lgan aholi.[40] Proto-yapon yoki qadimgi yapon tillarining asl shakllari ma'qullanmagan va lingvistik rekonstruktsiya qilishdan kelib chiqqan. Yaponlarning kelishi koreys tilining izolyatsiyasi sifatida paydo bo'lishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin. Proto-koreys tilida gaplashgan bo'lishi mumkin Manchuriya Koreya yarim orolidan pastga ko'chib o'tishdan oldin. Bitta tushuntirish, tilni boshqa joyga ko'chirganligini anglatadi Yapon tilida so'zlashuvchilar, Yayoyi migratsiyasini qo'zg'atgan bo'lsa, yana bir gipoteza proto-koreyscha ma'ruzachilar asta-sekin yaponiyalik Mumun dehqonlarini o'zlashtirgan va o'zlashtirgan deb taxmin qilmoqda.[41][42]

Evropa

6500 dan 4500 yil oldin boshlanib, qadimgi umumiy ajdodimiz Hind-evropa tillari ilgari mavjud bo'lgan tillar va til oilalarini almashtirib, Evropa bo'ylab tarqalishni boshladi.[43] Hukmronlik asosida Kurgan gipotezasi, ning asl karnaylari Proto-hind-evropa tili (19-asrdan beri birinchi va eng ko'p qayta tiklangan proto-tillardan biri) ehtimol yashagan Pontik-Kaspiy dashti sharqiy Evropada. Ushbu markazlashtirilgan PIE karnaylari Yamna madaniyati uylangan otlar va g'ildirakli transport vositalari bilan ko'chmanchi chorvadorlar edi.

Dastlabki yozma yozuvlar Evropada paydo bo'lib, turli xil hind-evropa va hind-evropadan oldingi tillarni yozib oldi. Masalan, Korsilar Korsikada joy nomlarini qoldirgan Paleo-korsika tili bronza va temir davrida aytilgan, Ligurian yoki Iberian bilan potentsial munosabatlar mavjud.[44] O'rta dengizning boshqa joylarida temir davri Kipr va Krit hind-evropa tillarida gaplashishgan Eteokipriot va Eteokretan navbati bilan. Krit iyerogliflari eteokretanning yozma shaklini saqlab qolish.

Praisosdan eng qadimgi eteokretan yozuvi

The Norik tili zamonaviy Avstriya va Sloveniyadagi bir nechta yozuv qismlaridan ma'lum bo'lgan yoki kontinental kelt tili yoki german tili kabi ko'rinadi.[45] Proto-german janubiy Skandinaviyada paydo bo'lgan proto-germangacha davomida Rimgacha bo'lgan temir asri. Arxeologik qoldiqlari Simli buyumlar madaniyati Miloddan avvalgi III ming yillikning o'rtalarida taxminan 4500 yil oldin PIE ma'ruzachilarining kelishi mumkin. Arxeologlar va tilshunoslar bu yoki yo'qligi haqida bahslashdilar Qo'ziqorin ishlab chiqaruvchisi madaniyati va Pitted Ware madaniyati hind-evropa edi. Bundan tashqari, munozaralar Germaniyalik substrat gipotezasi, bu dastlabki german tilining a bo'lishi mumkinligini taxmin qiladi kreol yoki aloqa tili g'ayrioddiy so'zlarning mavjudligiga asoslanadi.[46] Ko'plab keltlarning qarz so'zlari Rimgacha bo'lgan temir davrida proto-german va proto-kelt o'rtasidagi aloqani taklif qiladi.

Xaritasi Shimoliy Evropada Rimgacha bo'lgan temir asri proto-german bilan bog'liq bo'lgan madaniyatlarni ko'rsatib, v. Miloddan avvalgi 500 yil. Qizil rang oldingi maydonni ko'rsatadi Shimoliy bronza davri yilda Skandinaviya; magenta rangini janub tomon yo'naltiradi Jastorf madaniyati ning Shimoliy Germaniya tekisligi.

The Italo-Seltik hind-evropa tillarining bo'linmasi Markaziy va Janubiy Evropada bo'linib, ajralib chiqdi Kursiv tillar (bu lotin va undan keyingi barcha narsalarni o'z ichiga oladi Romantik tillar ) va Kelt tillari. The Urnfild madaniyati miloddan avvalgi 1300 yilda paydo bo'lgan birinchi bo'lib ishoniladi Proto-kelt madaniyat va undan keyin Hallstatt madaniyati Miloddan avvalgi 800 yilda Avstriyada.[47] Kelt tillari Markaziy Evropada, Markaziy Anadoluga, g'arbiy Iberiya, Britaniya orollari va hozirgi Frantsiyaga tarqalib, ajralib chiqib ketdi. Lepontik, Gaulish, Galatiyalik, Celtiberian va Gallaecian.

Kelt tillarining tarqalishi. Halstatt madaniyati (sariq), miloddan avvalgi 275 yilda Seltikning maksimal kengayishi (dengiz bo'yi), Lusitaniya maydoni (och yashil), 21-asrdagi nutq sohalari (to'q yashil)

Qadimgi Evropada va atrofidagi O'rta er dengizi mintaqasida ikkita hind-evropa tili mashhurlikka erishdi: yunon va lotin tillari. Yunon tilining paydo bo'lishi boshlandi Mikena yunon.[48] Til va unga aloqador adabiyot va madaniyat O'rta er dengizi atrofida, shu jumladan janubiy Italiya va Nil Deltasi kabi hududlarni hamda boshqa qirg'oq mintaqalarini tashkil etish bilan ta'sir o'tkazdi. Magna Graecia koloniyalar.

Eski lotin miloddan avvalgi 75 yilgacha bo'lgan bir nechta matn parchalari va yozuvlaridan tasdiqlangan. Sifatida Rim imperiyasi kengaytirilgan, Vulgar lotin uning ko'plab sub'ektlari uchun tilga aylandi, ammo Klassik lotin yunoncha bilan bir qatorda yuqori sinf, adabiy kontekstlarda ishlatilgan.[49] Lotin adabiyotining oltin davri miloddan avvalgi I asr va milodiy I asrni qamrab olgan, so'ngra ikki asr "Kumush asr". Yunon tilida lotincha o'rnini bosgan bo'lsa-da, til post-klassik davrdan boshlab keng ma'muriy qo'llanishda davom etdi Sharqiy Rim imperiyasi. Ba'zi hollarda tillar mutlaqo tekshirilmagan va faqat zamonaviy tarixiy tilshunoslar tomonidan xulosaga keltirilgan. Ba'zi Rim ma'lumotlariga ko'ra hind-evropa tillari ma'lum bo'lgan Qadimgi Belgiya tomonidan aytilgan Belga Rim istilosidan oldin.[50]

Davrida Rim Britaniya eng mahalliy britaniyaliklar so'zlashda davom etishdi Brittonik, garchi Britaniya vulgar lotin ba'zilari gapirishdi. Vulgar lotin Rim imperiyasi tomonidan bosib olingan ko'plab hududlarda odatiy holdir. Proto-rumin tili viloyatida so'zlashadigan lotincha shakllaridan kelib chiqqan bo'lishi mumkin Dacia Traiana yoki janubda gaplashib, tilning hozirgi hududiga ko'chib o'tgan bo'lishi mumkin. [51]

The Migratsiya davri Evropa va Yaqin Sharqdagi german, slavyan va bosqinchi dasht xalqlarining hajmini o'zgartirdi. Deyarli to'liq tekshirilmagan Hunnik tili bosqinchi tomonidan aytilgan Hunlar va yonma-yon ishlatilgan Gotik bo'yicha fath qilingan hududlarda Priskus. [52]

Evropa tillari taxmin qilingan, ammo noma'lum tillarni o'z ichiga oladi Dardani, Frigiya va Pelasgiya. Anatoliyadan bir nechta tekshirilmagan tillar ma'lum. The Troyan tili - potentsial bilan bir xil Luviya tili to'liq tekshirilmagan. Isauriya tili V asrga oid dafn yozuvlari,[53] Mysian yoki Qadimgi kapadok tili asosan Koine Greek bilan almashtirildi.[54]

Okeaniya va Tinch okeani

Avstraliyada, eng qadimgi Pama-nyungan tillari ishlatila boshlangan va butun qit'a bo'ylab tarqalib ketgan bo'lishi mumkin. A 2018 yil hisoblash filogenetikasi o'rganish kengayishni keltirib chiqardi Fors ko'rfazi tekisliklari shimoliy-sharqiy Avstraliya.[55]

Gavayining yashash joyi Markenliklar Miloddan avvalgi 300 yil Sharqiy Polineziyaning ikki tomonga ajralishi boshlandi Gavayi tili.[56]

Klassikadan keyingi davr (500 milodiy-1500 yil)

Afrika

Shimoliy Afrikada Rim hukmronligi davrida lotin tili sifatida kirib keldi va ba'zi shakllarda saqlanib qoldi Afrika romantikasi XIV asrga qadar, hatto arab-musulmonlar hukmronligining dastlabki bir necha asrlarida ham davom etgan. Berber tillari bilan birgalikda u oxir-oqibat arab tilining foydasiga bostirildi.[57]

XI-XIX asrlar orasida Shimoliy Afrikadagi odamlar, shuningdek, Kipr va Gretsiya odatda O'rta er dengizi Lingua Franca keng qo'llaniladigan "lingua franca" atamasi kelib chiqadi. Ingliz tiliga so'zma-so'z tarjima qilishda lingua franca "franklar tili" degan ma'noni anglatadi, bu frankiyaliklarga emas, balki evropaliklarga nisbatan umumiy ma'lumotdir. Dastlab, pidgin juda ko'p narsalarni jalb qildi Oksitano-romantik tillar va Shimoliy italyan tillari ammo vaqt o'tishi bilan portugal, ispan, turk, frantsuz, yunon va arab elementlarini sotib olgan.[58]

Ma'ruzachilari Ngasa tili XII asrda Kilimanjaro tog'ining shimolidagi tekisliklarda kengayib, Proto-Maasai bilan o'zaro tushunarli edi. Keyingi besh asrda bantu tilida so'zlashuvchi Chagga kelishi tilning sekin, ammo barqaror pasayishiga olib keldi.[59]

Madagaskadagi Malagasay hikoyalarida ozgina lingvistik dalillar mavjud bo'lsa-da, orolning birinchi aholisi bo'lgan gipotetik gapirishlari mumkin bo'lgan zebu-chorvador odamlar, dehqonchilik bananlari va zanjabillar haqida hikoya qiladi. Vazimba til. [60]

Osiyo

Bengal ko'rfazi atrofida, ning dastlabki shakllari Bengal tili dan ajralib chiqib, Sanskrit va Magadhi Prakritdan rivojlana boshladi Odia va Bihari atrofida 500. Proto-Bengal tilida so'zlashuvchi Sena sulolasi va Pala imperiyasi.[61][62] In Bengaliya Sultonligi u sud tiliga aylanib, fors va arab tillaridan qarz so'zlarini sotib oldi.[63]

Klassik xitoy belgilar Buddizm bilan birga Yaponiyaga olib kelingan va ular bilan o'qilgan bo'lishi mumkin kanbun usul. Ko'pgina matnlarda Xitoyning yapon grammatikasiga ta'siri, masalan, ob'ektdan keyin qo'yilgan fe'llar aks etadi. Ba'zan dastlabki matnlarda xitoycha belgilar fonetik jihatdan ifodalanadi Yapon zarralari. Eng qadimgi matn Kojiki 8-asrdan boshlab. Qadimgi yaponlar Man'ygana foydalanadigan yozuv tizimi kanji ularning fonetik va semantik qiymatlari uchun. Man'ygana tizimiga asoslanib, qadimgi yapon tili 88 ta hecadan iborat bo'lib tiklanishi mumkin.[64] Qadimgi yapon tilidan foydalanish yaqinlashish bilan yakunlandi Nara davri 794 yil atrofida. O'rta yaponlarning ettinchi asrlari 1600 yilga qadar kech o'rta yapon tiliga o'tmasdan oldin, 700 va 1100 yillarda labialize va palatalize undoshlarni qo'shib paydo bo'lgan.

Vetnamda ko'plab talqinlar Vetnam tilini kelib chiqishi sifatida joylashtiradi Qizil daryo vodiy. Biroq, 1998 yilda nashr etilgan muqobil talqinda ta'kidlanishicha, Vetnam Vetnamning janubidan janubda kelib chiqqan va faqat VII-IX asrlar oralig'ida Qizil daryo hududiga o'tib, ko'chib ketgan. Tai tili ma'ruzachilar.[65]

Vetnam tili va xalqining qadimgi xalqini bosib olish yo'li bilan Vetnamning hozirgi va janubiy Vyetnamga tarqalishi natijasida o'ziga xos tonal farqlar paydo bo'ldi. Champa va Khmerlar ning Mekong deltasi hozirgi zamon atrofida Xoshimin shahri, shuningdek, Saygon nomi bilan tanilgan.

Vetnam X asrda Xitoydan mustaqillikka erishdi, ammo hukmron sinflar foydalanishda davom etishdi Klassik xitoy hukumat, adabiyot va stipendiya uchun. Natijada, so'zlashuv so'zlashuvining uchdan bir qismi va yozma so'zlarning 60 foizi xitoy tilidan keladi. Frantsuz sinologi Anri Maspero Vetnamliklarni oltita bosqichga ajratdi, arxaik Vetnamlar XV asrda tugagan va ular tomonidan vakili bo'lgan Chữ Nom. Shu nuqtada, til a ni ko'rsatgan bo'lar edi ohang bo'linishi, olti tonna bilan, ammo undoshlar o'rtasida qarama-qarshi ovoz berishning etishmasligi.[66][67]

Koreya yarim orolida va Manchuriyada Goguryeo tili da aytilgan Goguryeo, eng katta va shimoliy Koreyaning uchta qirolligi miloddan avvalgi 37 va milodiy 668 yillarda mavjud bo'lgan.[68] Goguryeo tili zamonaviy davrning boshlarida yarim orolda so'zlashadigan bir qancha koreys yoki yapon tillaridan biri edi. Boshqalarga quyidagilar kiradi Gaya tili ichida Gaya konfederatsiyasi, siyrak tasdiqlangan Buyeo ichida Buyeo qirolligi yoki Baekje tili, ichida Baekje janubiy-g'arbiy Koreyaning qirolligi. Ushbu so'nggi til bilan chambarchas bog'liq edi Sillan shohligida paydo bo'lgan Silla va zamonaviy koreys va Jejuni vujudga keltirdi.

Davomida Jin sulolasi 1115 yildan 1234 yilgacha Yurxen tili birinchi yozma bo'ldi Tungus tili. Stela Manchuriya va Koreyada yozuvlarni yozib olish Yurxen yozuvi. Ushbu skriptni Manchu alifbosi So'nggi marta sodir bo'lganligi bilan 1526 yilda. Jurxen keyinchalik evolyutsiyaga aylandi Manchu tili ostida Nurhaci ning shakllanishi bilan 1600 yillarning boshlarida Tsing sulolasi.[69]

O'rta kxmerda o'yilgan tosh

Austronesianning aniq kelib chiqishi Kxmer tili noma'lum va milodiy 600 yil atrofida sanskritcha matnlarda tasdiqlangan. Qadimgi kxmer (Angkorian kxmer nomi bilan ham tanilgan) hind-buddist va birgalikda sanskrit tilida so'zlashadigan asosiy til sifatida ishlatilgan. Khmer imperiyasi 9-13 asrlar orasida. Taxminan 14-asrda u rasmiy hukumat maqomini yo'qotdi va O'rta xmer 19-asrda Vetnam va Tailand qarz so'zlari sezilarli ta'sir ko'rsatdi.[70]

Ning dastlabki kelib chiqishi Tai-kaday tillar oilasi Klassikadan keyingi davrdan oldinroq bo'lgan, ammo yozma yozuvlar faqat xitoylarning nashr etilishi bilan paydo bo'lgan "Yue Boatman qo'shig'i " bu fonetik jihatdan "yue" deb nomlangan sinitik bo'lmagan tillardan so'zlarni o'z ichiga oladi. 1980-yillar va 1990-yillarning boshlaridagi taqqoslashlar-ga tarjima qilingan so'zlar bilan o'xshashliklarni keltirib chiqardi Chjuan tili va Tailand tili. [71] Qadimgi Tailand bir necha asrlar davomida jonli heceler uchun uch tomonlama farq bilan gaplashib kelgan, ammo tovushni ajratish qobiliyatini yo'qotgan va zamonaviy Tay tiliga o'tgan. ohang bo'linishi 1300 va 1600 yillar orasida. Offshore, Klassik malay tili Shimoliy-Sharqiy Sumatradagi boshlang'ich darajadan boshlab tilning frankasiga aylandi Srivijayan talassokratiya. Indoneziyadagi ushbu tilda yozilgan ba'zi dastlabki yozuvlarga quyidagilar kiradi Kedukan Bukit yozuvlari yoki Sojomerto yozuvi.[72] Oliy sud Malayziya rahbariyati tomonidan gapirdi Johor Sultonligi va nihoyat Gollandiyaliklar tomonidan zamonaviy zamonaviy davrda qabul qilingan, ammo Melayu pasar ("Malay bozori") kuchli ta'sir ko'rsatgan.[73]

Kavkazdagi tillarning adabiy shakllari keyingi klassik davrda o'sishda davom etdi. Masalan, O'rta gruzin tilida ishlatilgan Gruziya qirolligi 12-asr kabi milliy eposlar uchun Shota Rustaveli Pantera terisidagi ritsar.

Markaziy Osiyoda So'g'diy tili ning lingua franca sifatida paydo bo'lgan Ipak yo'li, dan ko'plab kredit so'zlarini sotib olish O'rta xitoy.[74] Tilda yozilgan qo'lyozmalar 20-asrning boshlarida topilgan bo'lib, bu biznes uchun ham foydalanishni anglatadi Manixey, Nasroniy va Buddist matnlar. Bu o'z alifbosini Oromiy alifbosi va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri ajdodidir Eski uyg‘ur alifbosi.

So'g'diycha Nasroniy ichida yozilgan matn Estrangelo, da topilgan Turpan, 9 - 11-asr.

Qo'lyozmalar saqlanadi Toxar tili, In-Evropa tillar oilasining filiali Tarim havzasi 5-asrdan 8-asrgacha bo'lgan g'arbiy Xitoyning va 9-asrga kelib yo'q bo'lib ketganligi. Hujjatlarda "Toxarian A" deb nomlangan uchta yaqin tillar qayd etilgan Sharqiy Toxariya, Agnean, yoki Turfaniyalik), Tocharian B (G'arbiy Toxariya yoki Kuchean) va Tocharian C (Krorenyan, krorainic, yoki Lolanisch). Matnlarning mavzusi, Toxarian A ko'proq arxaik bo'lgan va a sifatida ishlatilganligini ko'rsatadi Buddist liturgik til, tocharian B esa butun mintaqada faolroq gaplashar edi Turfon sharqda to Tumshuq g'arbda. Tocharian C faqat bir nechtasida tasdiqlangan Kharoṣṭhī dan skript matnlari Kroran, shuningdek, qarz so'zlari va ismlarning asosiy qismi Prakrit dan hujjatlar Lop Nor havza.[75]

Toxariya qo'lyozmasi

Kurd yozuvlari ilk bor 9-asrda arab tiliga tarjima qilingan. The Yazidiyning qora kitobi XIII asrda paydo bo'lgan eng qadimiy diniy yozuv.[76] XV-XVII asrlarda klassik kurd shoirlari va yozuvchilari adabiy tilni rivojlantirdilar.

Amerika

Eskimo tillar oilasi taxminan 1000 yil oldin Yupik va Inuit filiallariga ajralgan.[14][15]

Rus-amerikalik tilshunos Aleksandr Vovin janubiy tungus tillaridagi emas, balki shimoliy tungus tilidagi eskimo qarz so'zlariga asoslanib, bu tillar Sharqiy Sibirda paydo bo'lgan va 2000 yil muqaddam tillar o'zaro ta'sir qilgan.[38]

20-asrda va 21-asrning boshlarida tilshunoslar bu masalada bahslashdilar Nahuatl, ning dominant tili Aztek imperiyasi Markaziy Meksikaning shimolida yoki tarixiy qismida paydo bo'lgan Aridoamerika hozirgi mintaqaning mintaqasi AQShning janubi-g'arbiy qismida.[77][78] Shimoliy kelib chiqish gipotezasida proto-nahuan tillari milodning 500 yillari atrofida paydo bo'lgan va ular bilan aloqada bo'lgan Corachol tillari shu jumladan Kora tili va Huichol tili chunki uning ma'ruzachilari janubga ko'chib ketishdi. Nahuatl Teotihuakan qulaganidan keyin paydo bo'lishi mumkin, bu shahar birinchi navbatda " Totonak tillari Nahuatl kelishidan oldin. Maya tilidagi nahuatl tilidagi potentsial so'zlar, tilni shakllantirish paytida potentsial aloqani taklif qiladi.[79]

Tupi-Guarani (o'rta pushti), boshqa Tupian (binafsha) va Tupi-Guarani tillarining 1500 (pushti-kulrang) oralig'ida

Maya bilan aloqada Oto-mangue tillari va Mixe-Zoque tillari, Nahuatl shunga o'xshash rivojlangan munosabatdosh otlar va kaloriyalar. Nahuatl 7-asrdan boshlab mashhurlikka erishdi va 11-asrga kelib Meksika vodiysida hukmronlik qildi va til frankiga aylandi.

Miloddan avvalgi 1000 yil atrofida Tiwanaku imperiyasi hozirgi Chili va Boliviya g'arbiy qismida migratsiya davri bo'lishi mumkin Puquina tili ta'sir qildi Mapuche tili.[80][81]

Evropa

Davomida Migratsiya davri, Germaniya ma'ruzachilari G'arbiy Evropani bosib o'tdilar. Bu kabi qabilalar Alemanni, Burgundiyaliklar va Vizigotlar gapirish Frank tili Galliyadagi vulgar lotin tilining frantsuz tiliga ajralishini boshladi. Darhaqiqat, qadimgi frantsuz tili sobiq Rim imperiyasida lotin tilidan ajralib chiqqan birinchi til edi Strasburg qasamyodi.[82] Qadimgi past franklik hozirgi Shimoliy Frantsiyaning ikki tilli mintaqalarida eng uzoq davom etgan ta'sirini ko'rsatdi, natijada germaniyaliklar ta'siriga tushgan langue d'oïl va janubiy langue d'oc (alohida Oksit tili ). Germaniyalik tillar rasmiylar tomonidan ishlatilgan Neustriya va Avstriya X asrga kelib.[83]

10-asr boshlarida qadimgi nors va unga oid tillarning taxminiy darajasi:
  Qadimgi G'arbiy Norse shevasi
  Qadimgi Sharqiy Norse shevasi
  Eski Gutnish
  Qadimgi ingliz
  Qrim gotikasi
  Boshqalar German tillari Qadimgi Norse hali ham o'zaro tushunarli bo'lib qoldi

Evropaning materik qirg'og'ida Angliyadagi german ko'chmanchilari gapira boshladilar Qadimgi ingliz, ko'chirish Eski Brittonik Northumbrian, Mercian, Kentish va G'arbiy Sakson lahjalari bilan.[84] Dastlab, til futhorc 8-asrda irland missionerlari tomonidan lotin alifbosi qayta tiklangunga qadar runik yozuv. 600 yildan keyin xristianlashtirish bir necha yuz lotin va yunon qarz so'zlarini qo'shdi.[85]Ba'zi tilshunoslar kelishlarini taxmin qilishadi Norsmenlar va yaratilishi Danelaw 865 yildan keyin adabiy maqsadlarda ishlatiladigan G'arbiy sakson lahjasi va Norland tilida Midland lahjasi chizilganligi bilan tilshunoslik tilga olib kelishi mumkin.[86]

O'rta ingliz 1066 yildan keyin paydo bo'ldi va mashhurligi Angliya-Norman va hukmron sinf orasida frantsuzcha frantsuzcha so'zlarning katta qismini keltirdilar. O'rta ingliz tilida adabiyot 1200-yillarning boshlaridanoq paydo bo'la boshladi.[87]Shimoliy dengiz bo'ylab, Qadimgi golland qadimgi ingliz tillari bilan bir vaqtning o'zida oldingi german tillaridan ajralib chiqqan, Qadimgi Sakson va Qadimgi friz.[88] Qadimgi friz va qadimgi saksonlar hisobiga u erni egallab oldi, ammo o'sha paytdan beri Frantsiya va Germaniyaning qisman hududlari qisqartirildi. Niderlandiyada yomonroq sertifikatlangan frank tilining yagona qoldiqlaridan biri mavjud Bergakker yozuvi ichida topilgan Tiel.[89] Qadimgi gollandiyaliklar Frankdan eng o'xshash bo'lib qolishdi Yuqori nemis undoshlari smenasi. Qadimgi Gollandiyada ozgina yozuvlar qolsa ham, O'rta golland va keng O'rta golland adabiyoti kabi ko'plab dialektlar va variantlar bilan birgalikda 1150 yildan keyin paydo bo'ldi Limburg, G'arbiy Flamand, Golland yoki Brabantian.[90]

Qadimgi Daniya milodning 800 yillari atrofida paydo bo'lgan va 1100 yillarga qadar "Runik Daniya" bo'lib qolgan.[91] Dastlabki 200 yil ichida bu shved tilining dastlabki shakllaridan deyarli farq qilmagan, ammo 1100 yildan keyin farqlangan. Yozma yozuvlar lotin tilida olib borilgan bo'lsa-da, oz sonli daniyalik matnlar lotin yozuvida, masalan, 13-asrning boshlarida yozilgan. Yutland qonuni va Skan qonuni. Daniyadagi qirollik xatlari, adabiyoti va ma'muriy hujjatlari 1350 yildan qarz so'zlarini olganidan keyin keng tarqalgan Past nemis. [92]

Skandinaviyadagi norman so'zlari va qadimgi gollandcha so'zlar frantsuz tiliga 1200-yillarning boshlarida kirib kelgan.[93] Brytonik - gapiruvchi xalqlar boshqaruvni o'z qo'liga oldi Armorica 4-7 asrlar oralig'ida, yumurtlamani tug'diradi Breton tili, hatto 12-asrga qadar hukmron sinf tomonidan ham ishlatilgan. In Bretan knyazligi, dvoryanlar XV asrda lotin tiliga, keyin frantsuz tiliga o'tdilar, Breton xalqi oddiy tilda qoldi.[94]

Dastlabki rumin tili X asrda bir nechta turli xil shakllarga bo'lindi, shu jumladan Istro-rumin yilda Istriya, Aromanca va Megleno-rumin. [51]The Alban tili birinchi marta yozma ravishda tasdiqlangan Dubrovnik 1284 yil iyulda, birinchi bo'lib 1462 yildan beri tilda yozilgan hujjat. [95] Keyinchalik Bolqonda shimol va sharqda, dastlabki shakllari Serbo-xorvat dan chiqa boshladi Qadimgi cherkov slavyan atrofida yozilgan 10-asr Glagolitik, Lotin, Bosniya kirillchasi, Arebica va Dastlabki kirill, 12 va 16-asrlar orasida alohida tilga aylanishdan oldin.[96] Garchi ba'zi dastlabki hujjatlar, masalan Ban Kulinning ustavi 1189 yildayoq paydo bo'lgan, XIII asrda 1275 yildagi "Istriya er tadqiqotlari" singari ko'proq matnlar tarqala boshladi. Vinodol kodeksi.[97]

Shimolda G'arbiy slavyan tillari X asrga kelib paydo bo'la boshladi. Polans qabilalari rahbarligida polshaliklarning dastlabki shakllarida gapira boshladilar Myesko I, kichikroq slavyan qabilaviy tillarini birlashtirish va lotin alifbosini qabul qilish 960-yillarning oxirlarida ushbu hududni xristianlashtirish bilan.[98]

The Henrykow kitobi butunlay yozilgan jumla sifatida talqin qilinishi mumkin bo'lgan narsalarga kiritilgan eng qadimgi hujjatdir Qadimgi polyak - Kun, ut ia pobrusa, a ti poziwai qizil rang bilan belgilangan

Davomida Normandlarning Irlandiyaga bosqini 1169 yildan boshlab ma'ruzachilar Fingallian O'rta ingliz shevasi Irlandiyaning janubi-sharqidagi Forth va Bargy baroniyalariga joylashib, yumurtlamoqda To'rtinchi va bargi lahjasi 19-asrgacha gapirilgan.[99]Mo'g'ul bosqini bularni qo'zg'atdi Kumanlar va Jasz odamlar qirol himoyasida Vengriyada boshpana olish Bela IV, ular bilan Osetin Yana ikki asr davomida gaplashgan eron tili. Yarim ko'chmanchi pecheneglar va potentsial jihatdan ham kumanlar VII-XII asrlar oralig'ida hozirgi Ukraina, Ruminiya va Vengriyaning ba'zi qismlarida pecheneg tilida gaplashishgan.[100]

Yozuvlar Venger birinchi bo'lib 1055 yilda birinchi kitobi, 1350 yillarda paydo bo'lgan "Kenigsberg fragmenti" bilan paydo bo'ldi. 1490-yillarga kelib, 3.2 million kishi Vengriya Qirolligi lotincha din tili sifatida xizmat qilgan bo'lsa-da, vengercha gapirdi. Yomon sertifikatlangan turk Xazar tili da aytilgan Xazar xonligi. Boshqa joyda, Eski tatar tili orasida Volga-Ural mintaqasida ishlatilgan Bashkirlar va Tatarlar, yozilgan Arab yozuvi va keyinroq İske imla alifbosi.[101]1951 yilda Nina Fedorovna Akulova qayin po'sti yozuvlaridan birinchisini topdi Eski Novgorod shevasi 11-asrdan 15-asrgacha. Yozuvlar qadimgi sharqiy slavyan tilidagi harflar, jumladan, ayollar va bolalar o'rtasida savodxonlikning yuqori darajasi va keyinchalik slavyan xususiyatlarining yo'qligini ko'rsatmoqda. ikkinchi palatizatsiya. Ning kengayishi Kiev Rusi taxmin qilingan Volga-Finnikka olib keldi Murom tili tomonidan singdirilgan Sharqiy slavyanlar.[102] Xuddi shu narsa aftidan sodir bo'lgan Meshchera va Merya tili.[103]

Dastlabki zamonaviy davr (1500 milodiy-1800 yil)

Afrika

Dastlab Kingozi deb nomlangan, Suaxili 1711 yildan arab yozuvidagi birinchi yozuvlar bilan Sharqiy Afrika savdosida asosiy til sifatida paydo bo'ldi.[104][105] Uning ismi arabchadan keladi: Saاحil sāil = "qirg'oq", singan ko‘plik Savāَil aravil = "qirg'oqlari", Savadَiliy sawāħilï = "qirg'oqlari".

Osiyo

Yaponiyada kech o'rta yaponlar fransiskalik missionerlar tomonidan hujjatlashtirilgan va portugal tilidan qarz so'zlarini sotib olgan, masalan, non uchun "pan" va sigaret uchun "tabako". Ning boshlanishi Edo davri 1868 yilgacha davom etadigan 1603 yilda Tokio Yaponiyaning eng muhim shahri sifatida ko'tarilib, lingvistik obro'sini Kansay shevasi ning Kioto Tokio Edo shevasiga. Ahom odamlar hozirgi Hindiston shtatida Assam gapirdi Ahom tili tizgin paytida Ahom Shohligi ga o'tishdan oldin Assam tili 19-asrda. A Kra-Dai til, bu sud hujjatlari va diniy matnlarda yaxshi qayd etilgan.[106]

Ikkalasi ham Gollandiya imperiyasi va Portugaliya imperiyasi XVI-XVII asrlarda Hindiston, Shri-Lanka va Janubi-Sharqiy Osiyoning boshqa joylarida ziravorlar savdosi portlari va yo'nalishlari uchun raqobatlashdi, bu esa ona tillari bilan aloqa qilish va kreolizatsiyaga olib keldi. Masalan, Cochin Portugaliyalik kreol ba'zi nasroniy oilalari orasida gapirishgan Vypin oroli, so'nggi ma'ruzachisi 2010 yilgacha o'lmaydi.[107] Juda katta miqyosda, Shri-Lanka portugal kreoli deyarli 350 yil davomida orol bo'ylab lingua-franka sifatida ishlatilgan, ammo Gollandiyadan kelib chiqqan bir necha kishidan tashqari hech kim foydalana olmagan. Burgerlar.[108] Filippinning janubida Sulu Sultonligi 1760-yillarning boshlarida Sulu arxipelagidagi hududlarni Ispaniyaga berdi, bu esa kengayishiga olib keldi Chavakano Ispaniyalik kreol atrofida paydo bo'lgan San-Xose qal'asi yilda Zamboanga shahri 1600-yillarning o'rtalariga kelib.

1600 va 1700 yillarda Dutch East India kompaniyasi Malayziyani ma'muriy va savdo tili sifatida qabul qildi, chunki Indoneziya arxipelagida o'z ta'sirini kuchaytirdi, chunki qisman tilning taniqli bo'lganligi sababli Malakkan Sultonligi. Bu Malay (keyinchalik Indoneziya) mustaqillikka erishgandan so'ng arxipelagning rasmiy tiliga aylandi. Boshqa mustamlaka kuchlari bilan taqqoslaganda Niderlandiyada rasmiy doiralardan tashqari Gollandiyada kamdan-kam hollarda qo'llaniladigan hollar qo'llanilgan, ammo Gollandiyadan keyin bu erda foydalanish ko'paygan. Bataviya Respublikasi tashkil etdi Gollandiyalik Sharqiy Hindiston 1779 yilda Gollandiyaning East India kompaniyasi bankrot bo'lganida.

Evropa

Klassikadan keyingi davrda Evropaning ko'plab tillarida yozuvlar mavjud bo'lishiga qaramay, bosmaxona ixtirosi bu nashrni boshlashga yordam berdi. Protestant islohoti Evropa tillarining yozma shaklini tezda kengaytirdi. Masalan, ilgari siyrak Ural tillari yaxshi hujjatlashtirildi. O'rta venger birinchi marta 1533 yilda Krakovda nashr etilgan bosma kitobda paydo bo'ldi. Til hozirgi shaklga juda o'xshash edi, ammo o'tgan ikki zamonni saqlab qoldi va turklar istilosi davrida turk tilidan lug'at bilan birga ko'plab nemis, frantsuz va italyan so'zlarini o'zlashtirdi. Boshqa Ural tillari 1600 yillarda bosma nashrlarda paydo bo'la boshladi. Estoniya tili # Tarix Xuddi shunday, nemis-eston lyuteran katexizmi 1637 yilda, so'ngra Yangi Ahd 1686 yilda janubiy Estoniya.[109]

In Northern Europe, Danish became the language of religion after 1536 due to the Protestant islohoti. Literary forms of the language began to differ more substantially from Swedish and Norwegian, with the introduction of the yaxshi and voicing stop consonants. The first translation of the Bible appeared in Danish in 1550. [110] Similarly, Dutch became more standardized as Modern Dutch around the urban dialects of Holland with the first translation of the Bible into the language.[111] Meanwhile, standardization was put on hold in the southern Ispaniya Gollandiyasi leading to partial divergence of Flamancha.[112]

From the 1600s onward, France was a major world power and an influential hub of European culture. Zamonaviy frantsuzcha was standardized around this period and spread worldwide with trading fleets, sugar colonies, deported Gugenotlar va Akadiyalik yoki Québécois settlers of New France.[113]Some Romance languages were slower to become well established as literary languages. Although widely spoken by common people in Valaxiya va Karpat tog'lari, Romanian only rarely appeared in written texts, mostly stemming from the Peri monastiri.[114]

Largely Romance speaking European powers like Portugal, Spain and France began assembling overseas empires in the Americas and Asia in the early modern period, spreading their languages through conquest and trade. English and Dutch also began to disseminate with initially smaller empires. Keyingi Reconquista, Inkvizitsiya posed a serious threat to some Jewish languages. Shuadit, also known as Judæo-Occitan appeared in French documents back to the 11th century but steeply declined, until the death of its last speaker Armand Lunel much later in 1977.

Ispan Kanar orollarini bosib olish in the 1400s drove the Berber Guanch tili to extinction. Earlier, in 1341, the Genovese explorer Nicoloso da Recco encountered and partially documented the language, which is also recorded in Punik va Libyco-Berber rock inscriptions.

The Kashfiyot yoshi began the creation of new creoles and pidgins among enslaved people and trading communities. Some people in the Solombala port in Arxangelsk in northern Russia spoke Solombala-English, a Russian-English pidgin, in the 18th and 19th centuries in an unusual example of a trade-related pidgin.

Some of the oldest documented sign languages among deaf communities date to the early modern period. Congenital deafness was widespread in villages in Kent, England, leading to the rise of Old Kentish Sign Language which may be recorded in diaries of Samuel Pepys. Old French Sign Language spoken in Paris in the 18th century competes as one of the oldest European sign languages.

Three Baltic languages, Curonian, Selon va Semigallian were assimilated to Lithuanian in the 16th century. Qrim gotikasi, referenced between the 9th century and 18th century was spoken by Qrim gotlari although only written down in any form by the Flemish ambassador Ogier Giselin de Busbek 1562 yilda.[115]The Polsha-Litva Hamdo'stligi became one of the largest and most powerful states in Europe, propelling Polish to the status of major regional language through the 1500s, 1600s and 1700s.[116]

Shimoliy Amerika

Apachean languages like the Navaxo tili migrated south to the Pueblo language area in around 1500.[117] Ning tashkil etilishi Ispaniya imperiyasi in 1519 displaced Nahuatl as the dominant Mesoamerican language, although it remained in widespread use among native people and in government documentation of many settlements in Mexico. The use of tens of thousands of Nahuatl-speaking troops from Tlaxkala spread the language northward and into Guatemala.[118]

Page 51 of Book IX from the Florensiya kodeksi. The text is in Nahuatl written in the Latin alphabet.

Spanish priests created documented grammars of Nahuatl and a Romanized version with the Lotin alifbosi. 1570 yilda qirol Ispaniyalik Filipp II instituted it as the official language of Yangi Ispaniya, resulting in extensive Nahuatl literature and usage in Honduras and El Salvador. However, the language's situation changed with a Spanish-only decree in 1696 by Ispaniyalik Karl II. [119]

Pre-contact distribution of Algonquian languages

As European fishing and trading fleets began to arrive off of North America, they encountered Alqonquin languages speakers.Bask whalers were among the first Europeans to establish sustained contact with native peoples in northeastern North America, particularly around the Avliyo Lourens ko'rfazi. The Algonquian–Basque pidgin emerged at an unknown date, before being last attested in 1710.[120]

In the Saint Lawrence valley, Jacques Cartier encountered speakers of the Laurentian tili in the mid-1530s. "Canada" the Laurentian word for village was later adopted for the country Kanada. However, the language was driven to extinction at an unknown point in the 16th century likely due to war with the Mohawks.[121]Frantsuz missioneri Chrétien Le Clercq documented the Miꞌkmaq iyeroglif yozuvi system, which may have been the northernmost example of a native writing system in North America. He adapted the writing system to teach common prayers and the catechism.[122]

In Massachusets ko'rfazidagi koloniya, Plimut koloniyasi and other parts of southern New England, English settlers interacted with Massachusett tili speaking Wampanoag peoples. John Eliot 's translation of the Christian Bible in 1663 using the Natick dialect codified the language and it entered widespread use in administrative documents and religious records in ibodat qiladigan shaharlar, although the language entered a steady decline toward extinction after Qirol Filippning urushi.[123]

The Woods Cree va Plain Cree lahjalari Kri tili may have diverged from those of other Cree people in northern Canada after 1670 with the introduction of firearms and the fur trade. However, some archaeological evidence suggests that Cree-speaking groups had already reached the Tinchlik daryosi mintaqasi of Alberta prior to European contact.[124]

A large influx of Irish laborers to Newfoundland in the 1600s and 1700s led to an outpost of the Nyufaundlenddagi irland tili, although the use of the language declined with out-migration to the other Maritime colonies after the collapse of the fishing industry in 1815.[125]

Prior to European arrival, the Aravakan Tayno tili displaced most other Caribbean languages but went extinct within 100 years of contact with Spain.[126] Sometime in the 16th century, the poorly attested Guanahatabey language went extinct in western Cuba.[127] Other Caribbean languages died out including the Macorix language in northern Hispaniola and Ciguayo language ning Samana yarim oroli died out in the 16th century, while the Yao tili survived in Trinidad and French Guiana, recorded in a single 1640 word list.[128]

Precolombian languages of the Antilles.Ciboney Taíno, Klassik Taíno va Iñeri were Arawakan, Karina va Yao were Cariban. Macorix, Ciguayo and Guanahatabey are unclassified.

In some cases, unique creoles took the place of native languages. Masalan Negerholland (spoken until the death of Alice Stevens in 1987) formed as a Dutch-based creole with Danish, English, French and African elements in the Danish colonies of Avliyo Tomas va Seynt Jon - the current day AQSh Virjiniya orollari - around 1700.

Janubiy Amerika

The oldest written records of the Kechuan tillari tomonidan yaratilgan Domingo de Santo Tomas, who arrived in Peru in 1538 and learned the language from 1540. He published his Grammatica o arte de la lengua general de los indios de los reynos del Perú (Grammar or Art of the General Language of the Indians of the Royalty of Peru) in 1560.[129] At the time of Spanish arrival, Quechua was the lingua France of the Incan Empire, although it had already spread widely throughout the Andes in the post-classical period before the rise of the Incans.

Natijada Inca expansion into Central Chile there were bilingual Quechua-Mapudungu Mapuche in Central Chile at the time of the Ispaniyaga kelish.[130][131] In central Chile, Spanish, Mapuche and Quechua may have seen extended bi-lingual or tri-lingual use throughout the 1600s. Quechua was quickly adopted by the Spanish for administrative interactions with native peoples and for church activity.[132]In the late 18th century, colonial officials ended administrative and religious use of Quechua, banning it from public use in Peru after the Túpac Amaru II rebellion of indigenous peoples.[133] The Crown banned even "loyal" pro-Catholic texts in Quechua, such as Garcilaso de la Vega's Komentariyalar reallari.[134]

Elsewhere in South America, Jizvit ruhoniy Antonio Ruis de Montoyya nashr etdi Tesoro de la lengua guaraní (Treasure of the Guarani Language / The Guarani Language Thesaurus) in 1639, beginning the process of codifying Guarani as one of the most widely spoken modern native American languages.

19-asr

During the 1800s, the Katta farq which began in the between the 16th and 18th centuries accelerated. Although the Americas became independent between the American Revolution in the 1770s and the end of South American Wars of Independence in the 1820s, the newly independent nations retained their colonial languages including English, Spanish and Portuguese. With the expansion of European colonies in Africa and Asia throughout the 19th century, the rapidly growing German va Romantik increasingly expanded into new geographies.

The rise of nationalist, revolutionary and romantic movements in the 1800s led to a surge in interest in formerly low-class regional and peasant languages. For example, beginning with the poems of Kristjan Yaak Peterson, native Estonian literature appeared around 1810, expanding during the Estophile Enlightenment Period.[135]

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, during the height of the Germaniya imperiyasi va Avstriya-Vengriya imperiyasi, German had expanded to a large portion of Eastern Europe, as well as to a small degree in German colonies in Africa and northern New Guinea. Middle-class people, intellectuals, the wealthy and government officials in Budapest and Bratislava, as well as Baltic cities such as Tallinn and Riga typically spoke German. 1901 yilda Duden Handbook codified orthographic rules for German speakers.

Afrika

Written records of most African languages are sparse from the Early Modern Period. In Gollandiyaning Keyp koloniyasi, Dutch settlers had created an outpost of the Indo-European languages, speaking Gollandiyalik burni among themselves while slaves may have relied on a 'Hottentot Dutch' creole. The combination of these languages began a process of linguistic diversion to create Afrikaanslar.[136]The Scottish traveler Jeyms Bryus kim gapirdi Amharcha qayd etdi Veyto tili spoken by hippopotamus hunters around Tana ko'li in 1770, but Eugen Mittwoch topdi Veyto speaking only Amharic around 1907.[137]

Osiyo

When France invaded Vietnam in the late 19th century, French gradually replaced Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as đầm (dame, from xonim), ga (train station, from narx), sơ mi (shirt, from kimyo) va búp bê (doll, from poupée).

In Indonesia, the devastating 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora wiped out the poorly attested Papuan Tambora tili, which was the westernmost Papuan language in central Sumbava.[138] The eruption destroyed the town of Tambora, with 10,000 people that possessed bronze bowls, glass and ceramic plates and were among the last cultures left from the pre-Austronesian history of Indonesia.

Multiple small Siberian languages were lost in the late 18th and early 19th centuries including Kott (documented in an 1858 dictionary by Matias Kastren ), Yurats, Mator, Pumpokol va Arin.

Evropa

In France, the monarchy may have favored regional languages to some degree to keep the peasantry disunified. During and after the French Revolution, successive governments instituted a policy of stamping out regional languages including Breton, Occitan, Basque and others that persisted into the late 20th century.[139]

The formation of Belgium as a multi-ethnic buffer state in western Europe placed most power in the hands of the French population, centered in the industrialized south. Except for elementary schools in Flanders, all government services were conducted exclusively in French.[140] In the most egregious cases, some innocent Dutch speakers were sentenced to death after being unable to defend themselves in court in French.[141] Although surrounded by Flemish speaking areas, Brussels relatively rapidly became a French majority city—which it remains in the 21st century.[142]During the disputes over language in Ukrainian and Polish areas, Ukraina rusofillari yilda Bukovina, Zakarpatiya va Halychyna yozgan Iazychie, a blend of Ruthenian, Polish, Russian and Old Slavic.[143]

Russia annexed Bessarabiya in 1812, leading to an increase in Russian bilingualism.[144]Other parts of Slavic Eastern Europe also went through a process of codifying languages as part of larger folk- and nationalist movements. For example, Serbian folklorist Vuk Stefanović Karadžić and the Croatian Illyrian harakati proposed uniting Serbo-Croatian around the Shtokavyan dialect although they split on whether to use the Serbiya kirill alifbosi yoki Croatian Latin alphabet. With the 1850 Vena adabiy bitimi, the two sides settled on a common form of the language which paved the way for the eventual creation of Yugoslaviya 20-asrda. [145]

Shimoliy Amerika

In Newfoundland, the poorly attested Beothuk tili went extinct in 1829 with the death of Shanawdithit.[146] The Miami-Illinois language was documented by Jesuit missionary Jak Gravye in the early 1700s before being displaced to northeastern Oklahoma in the 1800s.[147]Cree was incorporated into the Michif language, Bungi language and Nehipwat language in Saskatchewan and the area around the Red River aholi punkti 1800 yillarning boshlarida. The fur trade generated these mixed languages, which combine French, Scottish Gaelic and Assiniboine with Cree respectively.[148] Bungi is now virtually yo'q bo'lib ketgan, as its features are being abandoned in favor of standard English.[149][150]

Oceania and Pacific

After the British explorer James Cook made contact with Hawaiian peoples, Hawaiian crew members began to serve on European ships. Ismli o'spirin Obookiah suzib ketdi Yangi Angliya and provided information about the Hawaiian language to missionaries.[151]

Janubiy Amerika

With the rising prevalence of Spanish in newly independent Central and South American countries, many native languages entered decline. In the central highlands of Nicaragua, the Matagalpa language went extinct around 1875, while the Pacific slope Subtiaba tili disappeared sometime after 1909.[152]

In Tierra del Fuego, the Ona tili tomonidan aytilgan Selknam odamlar yilda Tierra del Fuego went into steep decline due to the Selk'nam genocide.

20-asr

Afrika

Although displaced to the south by Bantu languages much earlier in their history, many Xisan tillari remained widely spoken through the 19th and early 20th century by native people in southern Africa. Nǁng, a'zosi Tuu tillari in South Africa exemplifies the decline of many Khoisan languages. Speakers of the language were acculturated to Nama yoki Afrikaanslar when speakers moved into towns in the 1930s. The language was then declared extinct and the last people in its community were evicted from Kalaxari Gemsbok milliy bog'i in 1973. Linguists later discovered 101-year old Elsie Vaalboi and 25 others that could still speak the language in the late 1990s.[153]

The Kvadi tili, a click language in southwest Angola went extinct at some point in the 1950s.[154]

At an unknown point in the mid- to late 20th century, Cameroonian languages Duli, Gey, Nagumi va Yangi went extinct, together with the Muskum tili in Chad, Kvadza va Ngasa in Tanzania or the Vaal-Orange language Janubiy Afrikada. Two South African languages went extinct with attested dates. Jopi Mabinda, the last speaker of EXegwi was murdered in 1988 (although a 2018 report suggests the language may still be spoken in the Xrizissemer tuman) va AmXam disappeared in the 1910s, but with substantial documentation by German linguist Wilhelm Bleek. Nigerian language extinctions throughout the century include Basa-Gumna by 1987, Ajava taxminan 1930 va Kpati before 1984, with speakers shifting to Hausa

A language shift to Arabic in Sudan displaced Birgid, Gule va Berti between the mid-1970s and late 1990s. Between 1911 and 1968, Og'zaki til, a Zenati Berber language in Sened, Tunis fell entirely out of use.[155]

Following the end of French rule in the 1950s and 1960s, newly independent governments in North Africa pursued a policy of Arablashtirish which badly impacted many Berber languages. Millions of Berbers immigrated to France and other parts of Western Europe.

Osiyo

Between 1900 and 1945 the Japanese sprachraum briefly underwent a rapid expansion as the Yaponiya imperiyasi took control of Korea and Taiwan, instituting Japanese as the official language in its colonies. Much more briefly, during World War II, Japanese had a short-lived official status in the Philippines, China and occupied Pacific islands. Japanese rule began the process of assimilating and marginalizing the diverse Austronesian languages of Taiwan, which accelerated after the arrival of the Gomintang government at the end of the Xitoy fuqarolar urushi in 1949. In the Andaman orollari, British colonial officials first recognized the Buyuk Andaman tillari 1860-yillarda. Many of these languages underwent decline and extinction in the 20th century. Aka-Kol, Aka-Bea, Akar-Beyl, Oko-Juvoi va Aka-Kede all fell out of use between the early 1920s and early 1950s. Aka-Kari, Aka-Bo, Aka-Jeru va Aka-Kora all survived the 20th century but marked the deaths of their last speakers between 2009 and 2010. The last speakers of Dikamay Agta, one of several Filipino Negrito languages were killed by Ilokano homesteaders in the northern Philippines at some point in the 1950s, 60s or early 70s.

In 1913, the German Jewish aid agency Hilfsverein der deutschen Juden attempted to institute German as the language of instruction for the first technical high school in Palestine prompting the War of the Languages.[156] This sparked a public controversy between those who supported the use of German and those who believed that Ibroniycha should be the language spoken by the Jewish people in their homeland. The issue was not just ideological: until then, Hebrew was primarily a liturgical language and lacked modern technical terms.[157] The 1910s language debate presaged the revival of Hebrew in an independent Israel after World War II—the only large-scale revival of an extinct language.

Turkish nationalists clashed throughout the century with other language groups in Anatolia. Davomida Yunon genotsidi, almost all Greek speakers were purged from Turkey and killed or deported to Greece. As a result, speakers of Kapadokiyalik yunoncha, which had split off of Medieval Greek after the Seljuq Turk victory at the Manzikert jangi in 1071, were forced to leave for Greece. Most Cappadocian Greek speakers shifted quickly to Modern Greek and linguists presumed that the language was extinct by the 1960s. Biroq, 2005 yilda, Mark Janse and Dimitris Papazachariou found that up to 2800 third-generation speakers were still using the language in Northern and Central Greece.[158]

The Turk tili uyushmasi (TDK) was established in 1932 under the patronage of Mustafo Kamol Otaturk, with the aim of conducting research on Turkish. Several hundred foreign loanwords were banned from use in media and Arabic and Persian vocabulary fell out of use.

In a renewed wave of linguistic tension following the 1980 Turkish coup the Kurdish language was banned until 1991, remaining substantially restricted in broadcasting and education until 2002.[159][160]At the end of British rule, large portions of Bengal became Sharqiy Pokiston. The government of the newly formed Pokiston hukmronligi, markazida G'arbiy Pokiston (the current day territory of Pakistan) mandated Urdu as the only official language. This move faced opposition from the Bengal tili harakati and the government of Pakistan responded to protests in 1952 by killing students at the Dakka universiteti.[161] Although language issues were officially settled by 1956 in a new constitution, the subsequent Bangladeshni ozod qilish urushi in 1971 played an important role in further establishing the Bengali language's status in an independent Bangladesh.

Several Siberian languages went extinct in the late 20th century. Valentina Wye was the last speaker of Sirenik Yupik until 1997,[162][163] va Klavdiya Plotnikova was last the living speaker of the Samoyedic Kamassian language 1989 yilgacha.

Evropa

Ning kengayishi Germaniya imperiyasi briefly expanded the German language outside of Central Europe to areas in Africa and New Guinea. In Avstriya-Vengriya imperiyasi and German Empire, German was a high status language spoken by upper middle classes and settlers in large parts of current day Poland, Slovakia, and elsewhere in Eastern Europe.

Extent of German language speakers in 1910

The expulsion of ethnic Germans from Eastern Europe led to a rapid contraction the Nemis spraxraum, although not a significant erosion of the language. Dialects from areas where German-speakers were fully displaced largely disappeared, including Silesian nemis yoki High Prussian. Sharqiy Pomeraniya survives among small numbers of expellees and their descendants in Iowa, Wisconsin and the Brazilian state of Rondoniya.[164]

Similarly, up to 350,000 Italian speakers fled Yugoslaviya between 1943 and 1960 as part of the Istrian-Dalmatian exodus.[165][166]

Shimoliy Amerika

The US pursued direct anglicizing policies against native peoples until well into the second half of the 20th century. Oxirida Ispan-Amerika urushi, 75% of people in the newly acquired Shimoliy Marianalar va Guam gapirdi Chamorro tili. By 2000 only 20% of Guam residents could understand Chamorro. In 1922 all Chamorro schools were closed and Chamorro dictionaries burned—a policy that continued until after World War II.[167]In spite of policies that largely disfavored indigenous languages, the US military undertook strategic use of Navajo kodini gapiruvchilar to communicate during World War II, taking advantage of a lack of Navajo dictionaries in existence.[168]

Mexico pursued a policy of Hispanicization, leading to a rapid drop in the number of indigenous language speakers. For example, Nahuatl plummeted from 5% of the population in 1895 to 1.49% in 2000. The Zapatista milliy ozodlik armiyasi in-part forced new recognition of indigenous languages in the late 1990s, with the creation of the Mahalliy aholini rivojlantirish bo'yicha milliy komissiya (CDI) va Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas (INALI), as well as offering bilingual education.[169]

In contrast to losses of regional languages throughout much of North America, the Quebec nationalist movement pushed back in the late 1960s and Canada adopted national bilingualism in 1982. The Charter of French Language in 1977 established French as the sole language of government and education in the Quebec. The number of English speakers in the province, which began declining in the 1960s had dropped by 180,000 since the 1970s in the 2006 census.[170]

Oceania and Pacific

A renewed interest in indigenous cultures after the 1960s and 1970s prompted small scale efforts to revitalize or revive endangered and extinct languages, particularly in Australia and New Zealand. Since 1992, the Tasmanian Aboriginal Centre has constructed Palava kani as a composite of Tasmanian languages.[171]

Janubiy Amerika

O'xshash Ispanlashtirish policies in much of South America reduced many native languages to lower status, as some languages became extinct. In the Atacama Desert in Chile, the last speaker of Kunza language isolate was found in 1949, with the final shift to Spanish completed at some point in the 1950s. The Ona tili tomonidan aytilgan Selknam odamlar in Tierra del Fuego went extinct around the early 1980s, although some sources suggest a handful of speakers still existed around 2014.[172]

21-asr

The end of the Cold War and new globalization into the early 21st century led to large expansions in the number of English speakers, as well as more international education in Mandarin Chinese. Political disruptions changed language use in some areas, with the abandonment of Russian as a second language in some parts of Eastern Europe.

Due to high levels of Janubiy Afrikada jinoyat, large numbers of Afrikaans speakers emigrated to Australia, Canada, the US and UK throughout the late 1990s and early 21st century. In spite of the loss of state support for the language after the end of apartheid, it remains the second mostly widely spoken language in South Africa, with a growing majority among Rangli odamlar. Census data in 2012 indicated a growing number of speakers in all nine provinces.[173] In Namibia, the percentage of Afrikaans speakers declined from 11.4 percent in the 2001 Census to 10.4 percent in the 2011 Census.[174]

2014 yildan boshlab, Xitoy launched major crackdowns on the Uyg'ur xalqi of Xinjiang, imprisoning up to one million people in detention camps. In 2017, the government banned all Uyg'ur tili education, instituted a Mandarin only policy and by 2018 had removed Uyghur script from street signs.[175][176][177]

Nursulton Nazarboyev announced in early 2018 a plan to transition the Qozoq tili from Cyrillic to Latin script, estimated to cost 218 billion Kazakhstani tenge ($670 million 2018 US dollars).[178]

Interest in language preservation, revitalization and revival which began in the 19th and 20th centuries accelerated in the 1990s and into the 21st century, particularly with frequent news articles about the rapid decline of small languages. Form 990 non-profit organization filings in the United States indicate several organizations working on endangered languages, but a continued lack of substantial funding. Language categorization and population surveys continue to be undertaken by Glottolog va SIL etnologi. Instability in North Africa has brought a surge in some Berber languages. Tuareg rebels revolted against the government of Niger, while reports indicate that tribes in the Nafusa tog'lari allied with the Milliy o'tish davri kengashi in Libya's civil war are seeking co-official status for the Nafusi tili with Arabic.[179]

Although the population of Polish speakers within Poland itself shrank, the Polish language made inroads in other parts of Europe as Polish workers flocked to the UK, Netherlands, France and Germany as guest workers.[180]

Future of language

The future of language has been a popular topic of speculation by novelists, futurists, journalists and linguists since the 19th century. American linguist and author John McWhorter projects that by the early 2100s only 600 to 700 languages will be in widespread daily use, with English remaining as the dominant world language. He imagined a scenario in which languages become more streamlined and blended, giving the examples of "Singlish" in Singapore, Wolof in Senegal, Kiezdeutsch in Germany and "Kebob Norsk" in Norway.[181]

Others argue that English will become only one of several major world languages with an increase in bi-lingualism, given evidence that the number of native speakers of the language is falling. In 2004, consultant and linguistics researcher David Graddol suggested that native English speakers will fall from nine percent to five percent of all language speakers by 2050, with Mandarin Chinese and Hindi-Urdu rising up the list.[182]

In a widely debated assessment, the French investment bank Natixis proposed that French would become the world's most spoken language by 2050, with 750 million speakers in sub-Saharan Africa.[183]

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