Iordaniyada suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya - Water supply and sanitation in Jordan

Iordaniya: Suv va sanitariya
Ma'lumotlar
Ga kirish yaxshilangan suv manbai	96% (2012 yil, 2014 yildagi taxmin)[1]
Kirish yaxshilangan sanitariya	98% (2012 yil, 2014 yilgi taxmin)[1]
Ta'minotning uzluksizligi	mavsumi va joyiga qarab haftasiga bir marta (2009); uzluksiz ta'minot faqat Aqabada[2]
O'rtacha shaharlashgan suvdan foydalanish (litr / kishi / kun)	80[3]
Shahar suvi va kanalizatsiya uchun o'rtacha tarif (AQSh dollari / m)3)	0,65 (2009 yil, faqat Amman uchun, 20 million iste'molga to'g'ri keladi)3/ oy)[4]
Uy xo'jaligini hisobga olish ulushi	95% (2007 yil O'rta gubernatorlarda)[5]
Yig'ilgan chiqindi suvlarning ulushi	98%[3]
Daromadsiz suv	44% (2008)[6]
Suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya uchun yillik sarmoyalar	Aholi jon boshiga yiliga 40 AQSh dollari (o'rtacha 2005–2010)[7]
Investitsiyalarni moliyalashtirish manbalari	Tashqi grantlar (27%), tashqi kreditlar (3%), ichki obligatsiyalar (36%) va davlat grantlari (34%) (2005-2010)[7]
Institutlar
Hokimiyatlarga markazsizlashtirish	Yo'q
Suv va kanalizatsiya milliy kompaniyasi	Yo'q
Suv va kanalizatsiya regulyatori	Loyihani boshqarish bo'limi (PMU), faqat xususiy operatorlar uchun
Siyosatni belgilash uchun javobgarlik	Suv va irrigatsiya vazirligi (MWI)
Tarmoq qonuni	Keng qamrovli sektor qonuni yo'q, faqat WAJni yaratadigan qonun
Xizmat ko'rsatuvchi provayderlar soni	4 (Iordaniya suv boshqarmasi va uchta kompaniya: Miyaxuna, Aqaba suv kompaniyasi va Yarmuk suv kompaniyasi)

Iordaniyada suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya qattiq xarakterlanadi suv tanqisligi, natijada majburiy immigratsiya tufayli kuchaygan 1948 yil Arab-Isroil urushi, Olti kunlik urush 1967 yilda Fors ko'rfazi urushi 1990 yil, Iroq urushi 2003 yil va Suriya fuqarolar urushi 2011 yildan beri. Iordaniya suv tanqisligi dunyoning o'nta mamlakatlaridan biri hisoblanadi. Aholining yuqori o'sishi, er osti suvlari zahiralarining kamayishi va iqlim o'zgarishining ta'siri kelajakda vaziyatni yanada kuchaytirishi mumkin.

Mamlakatning asosiy er usti suv manbalari Iordan daryosi va Yarmuk daryosi, bilan bo'lishiladi Isroil va Suriya Iordaniya uchun ozgina miqdorni qoldiradiganlar. The Disi suv tashish loyihasi qayta tiklanmaydigan Disidan suv qatlami poytaxtga Amman 2013 yil iyul oyida ochilgan bo'lib, mavjud resurslarni taxminan 12 foizga oshiradi. Talab va taklif o'rtasidagi qolgan tafovutdan foydalanishning ko'payishi hisobiga bartaraf etish rejalashtirilgan qayta tiklangan suv va tuzsizlangan dengiz suvi orqali taqdim etilishi kerak Qizil dengiz - O'lik dengiz kanali.

Iordaniyaning qattiq suv tanqisligiga qaramay, iordaniyaliklarning 97 foizdan ko'prog'i suv olish imkoniyatiga ega yaxshilangan suv manbai va 93% kirish huquqiga ega yaxshilangan sanitariya. Bu Yaqin Sharq va Shimoliy Afrikadagi eng yuqori ko'rsatkichlardan biridir.^[1] Biroq, suv ta'minoti vaqti-vaqti bilan bo'ladi va suvni tom tomondagi idishlarda saqlash odatiy holdir. Shahar suv ta'minotida oqish, ro'yxatdan o'tkazmaslik va o'g'irlik natijasida yo'qotilgan suv darajasi (daromadsiz suv ) taxminan 51% ni tashkil qiladi.^[8] Suv tariflari subsidiyalashtiriladi. 2009 yilda qabul qilingan suvning milliy strategiyasida sho'rsizlantirish va oqava suvlardan qayta foydalanishga alohida urg'u berilgan. Mamlakat suv sohasiga investitsiyalar kiritish uchun katta miqdordagi tashqi yordamni oladi, bu suv investitsiyalarini moliyalashtirishning qariyb 30 foizini tashkil etadi.^[9]

Zamonaviy tarix va so'nggi o'zgarishlar

Amman

Qorak

Aqaba

Azraq

Deyr Alla

Irbid

Mafraq

Maan

Vodiy Musa

Zarqa

Maqolada aytib o'tilgan shaharlarni ko'rsatadigan Iordaniya xaritasi.

Iordaniya suv xo'jaligining zamonaviy tarixi aholining ko'p sonli o'sishiga bardosh beradigan infratuzilmani sezilarli darajada rivojlanishi va mamlakat suv infratuzilmasini rivojlantirish, ekspluatatsiya qilish va saqlash muammolarini engish uchun o'z muassasalarini bir vaqtning o'zida modernizatsiya qilish bilan tavsiflanadi.

1946-1971: dastlabki kunlar

1946 yilda Iordaniya mustaqillikka erishgandan ko'p o'tmay va G'arbiy Sohilning qo'shilishi, yarim milliondan kam bo'lgan aholining ozgina qismi faqat o'zlarining binolarida suv quvurlaridan foydalanish imkoniyatiga ega edilar. Ichimlik suvi mahalliy buloqlardan ta'minlangan; kanalizatsiya va ozgina sug'orish yo'q edi. Ushbu mustaqillikning dastlabki davri Suriya bilan suv resurslari ulushini rivojlantirish, Shimoliy Iordaniya vodiysida cheklangan sug'orish infratuzilmasini qurish va suv sohasiga mas'ul bo'lgan professional tashkilotlarni yaratish borasidagi urinishlar bilan ajralib turardi.^[10]

1953-1955 yillarda AQShning Yaqin Sharqdagi suv bo'yicha maxsus vakili, Erik Jonston, bilan muzokara olib borgan Iordaniya vodiysining yagona suv rejasi Isroil, Livan, Suriya va Iordaniya o'rtasida Iordan daryosi havzasining suv resurslarini birgalikda rivojlantirish. Jonston rejasi deb nomlanuvchi Reja, tomonidan rad etilgan bo'lsa-da Arab Ligasi siyosiy asoslarga ko'ra, Iordaniya bundan kelajakda suv resurslarini rivojlantirish uchun asos sifatida foydalangan. Rejada Maqarinda to'g'on qurilishi ko'zda tutilgan edi Yarmuk daryosi Iordaniya-Suriya chegarasida, shuningdek, Iordaniya vodiysini sug'orish uchun Yarmuk suvlarini yo'naltirish uchun quyi oqim bo'ylab burilish xavfi mavjud. 1953 yil Suriya bilan suv taqsimlash to'g'risidagi shartnomaga asoslanib, Iordaniya rejalarini tuzdi va to'g'on uchun mablag'ni AQShdan izladi. Yarmukdan suvni boshqa tomonga yo'naltirgan Isroil Galiley dengizi o'z foydalanishi uchun maslahat berilmagan va AQSh Maqarin to'g'onini moliyalashtirmaslikka qaror qilgan. Shunday qilib, daryoning qishki oqimlarining katta qismi daryoga oqib o'tdi O'lik dengiz va Iordaniyada sug'orishni rivojlantirish uchun etarli suv resurslarini qoldirdi. Shunga qaramay, Iordaniya Shimoliy-Sharqiy Iordaniya vodiysida cheklangan suv bilan sug'orishni rivojlantirish uchun AQSh mablag'lari hisobiga Sharqiy Go'r kanalini qurishga kirishdi.^[10]

Suv infratuzilmasini rivojlantirish uchun Iordaniya malakali kadrlarga ega kuchli tashkilotlarni qurishi kerak edi. Shu maqsadda 1959 yilda ikkita sug'orish infratuzilmasini rivojlantirish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan Sharqiy Go'r kanali idorasini va ichimlik suvi ta'minoti infratuzilmasini rivojlantirish uchun mas'ul bo'lgan Markaziy suv idorasini tuzish uchun ikkita qonun qabul qilindi. Ushbu muassasalar davlat tartibidan tashqarida ishladilar va mamlakat suv xo'jaligini rivojlantirish bo'yicha muhim vazifani bajarish uchun zarur bo'lgan g'ayratli va iqtidorli xodimlarni jalb qilish uchun odatdagi davlat xizmatiga qaraganda yaxshiroq maosh taklif qildilar.^[10] Biroq, bu harakatlar Iordaniya G'arbiy Sohilni Isroilga va shu bilan birga aholisining uchdan bir qismiga mag'lub bo'lganida to'xtadi. Olti kunlik urush 1967 yilda va keyingi tartibsizlik va zo'ravonlik davrida tanilgan Qora sentyabr bu 1971 yilgacha davom etdi.

1972-1994: infratuzilmani rivojlantirish, institutsional qurilish va mintaqaviy suv almashinuvi

Shoh Talal to'g'onining suv ombori - bu Iordaniya vodiysida sug'orish uchun Zarqa daryosidan chuchuk suv va Amman-Zarqadan tozalangan oqava suvlarni saqlaydigan Iordaniyadagi eng katta suv ombori.

1970-yillarning boshidan boshlab suv inshootlari qurilishi bilan mamlakat suv infratuzilmasi sezilarli darajada kengaytirildi Shoh Talal to'g'oni 1977 yilda qurib bitkazilgan va Sharqiy Ghor kanalining qurilishi (nomi o'zgartirilgan) Qirol Abdulloh kanali Mamlakatdagi Ayn G'azaldagi birinchi chiqindi suv tozalash inshooti 1968 yilda foydalanishga topshirilgan edi, ammo boshqa chiqindi suv tozalash inshootlarini qurish masalasi faqat 1970 yillarning oxirlarida boshlangan. 1985 yilda Buyuk Ammonga xizmat ko'rsatadigan As-Samrada mamlakatdagi eng katta chiqindi suv tozalash inshooti foydalanishga topshirildi. O'simlik stabillashadigan suv havzasi texnologiya, elektr energiyasiga muhtoj bo'lmagan tabiiy texnologiya.

Institutlar nuqtai nazaridan 1959 yilda tashkil etilgan ikkita avtonom suv xo'jaligi instituti 1965 yilda Tabiiy resurslar idorasiga birlashtirildi, ammo bu haddan tashqari markazlashtirilgan tartib, shu jumladan tog'-kon ishi kabi nodavlat funktsiyalar muvaffaqiyatli bo'lmadi. Shu sababli, keyingi institutsional o'zgarishda 1973 yilda uchta yangi tashkilot tashkil etildi: ularning har biri o'z qonuniga binoan: Amman suv va kanalizatsiya idorasi (AWSA), ichimlik suvi ta'minoti korporatsiyasi (DWSC) shahar tashqarisidagi hududlarda suv ta'minoti uchun mas'ul. poytaxt va Iordaniya vodiysi komissiyasi (JVC).^[10] Bu orada, 1967 yilda tabiiy o'sish va falastinlik qochqinlar oqimi tufayli Iordaniya aholisi 1,5 million kishiga o'sdi. O'sayotgan poytaxt suvsiz qoldi va uning ta'minoti vaqti-vaqti bilan paydo bo'ldi. Kamchilikni bartaraf etish maqsadida Vazirlar Mahkamasi 1977 yilda ikkita loyihani ma'qulladi: birinchisi, Iordaniya vodiysidagi Deyralladan Ammanga ichimlik suvi tortadigan transport vositasini qurish, ikkinchisi - bu transport vositasini qurish. Azraq voha poytaxtdan sharqda joylashgan. Ikkala loyiha ham 1980-yillarda yakunlangan. Shu bilan birga, toza suv yo'qotilishini qoplash uchun Iordaniya vodiysida sug'orish uchun Ammandan tozalangan chiqindi suvlarni qayta ishlatishga qaror qilindi.^[11]

Ushbu davrda 1977 yilda Germaniya hukumati va uning texnik yordam agentligi ko'magida birinchi Milliy suv bosh rejasi ishlab chiqildi va yakunlandi GTZ.

O'sha paytda hukumat tomonidan suv balansi bo'yicha alohida tadqiqotlar olib borilgan va Xovard Xamfri va Partners tomonidan 1978 yilda tugatilgan. Ushbu tadqiqot mamlakatning sug'orishni rivojlantirish va o'sib borayotgan aholisini etarli miqdordagi ichimlik bilan ta'minlash uchun suv resurslari juda etarli emasligini ko'rsatdi. suv. Ushbu tadqiqot asosida Iordaniya Iroqdan suv o'tkazish imkoniyatini o'rganish uchun Iroq hukumatiga murojaat qildi Furot Iordaniyaga. O'sha paytda Iordaniya bilan yaqindan ittifoqdosh bo'lgan Iroq prezidenti Saddam Xuseyn bu talabni ma'qulladi, ammo 80-yillarning o'rtalarida amalga oshirilgan texnik-iqtisodiy asoslar shuni ko'rsatdiki, shaharlararo transfer juda qimmatga tushadi. Ushbu variantdan voz kechgandan so'ng, hukumat e'tiborini quyidagilarga qaratdi Disi suv tashish loyihasi bu qazib olinadigan er osti suvlarini Saudiya Arabistoni bilan chegara hududidan Ammonga olib keladi.^[11]

Institutsional rivojlanish nuqtai nazaridan, hukumat avvalgi tuzilishga qaytishga qaror qildi, suv xo'jaligi uchun mas'ul bo'lgan ikkita alohida avtonom idorani tashkil etdi. 1977 yilda u qonun asosida Iordaniya vodiysi ma'muriyatini (JVA) QKni va boshqa tashkilotlarning qismlarini birlashtirib, Iordaniya vodiysini har tomonlama rivojlantirish zimmasiga yukladi. 1983 yilda yana bir qonun bilan Iordaniyada ichimlik suvi ta'minoti va sanitariya uchun mas'ul bo'lgan Iordaniya Suv idorasini (WAJ) tashkil etdi. Dastlab, har ikkala hokimiyatning rahbarlari vazir darajalariga ega edilar va to'g'ridan-to'g'ri Bosh vazirga hisobot berib turdilar, 1988 yilda Suv va irrigatsiya vazirligi (MWI) tashkil etilgunga qadar ikkala idorani unga bo'ysundirdilar.^[10]Yana bir institutsional o'zgarish 1993 yilda Jahon bankining suv sektori sharhida Ammanning suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya tizimini boshqarish uchun xususiy kompaniyani jalb qilishni taklif qilganida yuz berdi, bu hukumat tomonidan tasdiqlandi. Ushbu qadam uchun muhim turtki xarajatlarni qoplashni oshirish edi.^[12]

1994 yil Isroil bilan tuzilgan tinchlik shartnomasi orqali Iordaniya Jalil dengizidan suv olish imkoniyatiga ega bo'ldi.

1995 yilda 1994 yilgi suvga qo'shimcha Isroil-Iordaniya tinchlik shartnomasi Galiley dengizidan suv etkazib berish va Yarmuk daryosidan suvning katta qismini olish orqali Iordaniyaning mavjud suv resurslarini ko'paytirdi. Shu bilan birga, qo'shimcha ichimlik suvini Ammanga etkazib berish uchun Deyralla-Amman konveyerining quvvatini ikki baravar oshirishga qaror qilindi. Tinchlik shartnomasida eslatilmagan bo'lsa-da, O'lik dengizning pasayib borayotgan darajasini ko'tarish va Iordaniyani sho'rsizlantirish orqali ko'proq suv bilan ta'minlash maqsadida ikki mamlakat birgalikda rejalashtirgan Qizil dengiz-O'lik dengiz kanali g'oyasi Tinchlik shartnomasi natijasi.1998 yil yozida Ammanda ichimlik suvi bilan bog'liq hodisa ro'y bergan, ba'zi musluklardan yoqimsiz hidli suv chiqqan. Bu voqea bir vaqtning o'zida taxt uchun vorislik kurashida vosita bo'ldi Shoh Xuseyn o'lib yotmoq. Tarix professori Nayjel Eshtonning so'zlariga ko'ra, o'sha paytdagi suv vaziri Munter Haddadin o'sha paytda ittifoqdosh bo'lgan.Valiahd shahzoda Hasan. Hassanning muxoliflari bu voqeadan "yuqori lavozimlarda beparvolik va korruptsiya" uchun dalil sifatida foydalanib, suv vazirini Galiley dengizidan olib kelingan suvni qayta ishlovchi Zai suv tozalash inshootining ishini to'g'ri nazorat qilmaganligi sababli iste'foga chiqishga majbur qildi. Iordaniya vodiysi - Ammongacha. Ikki boshqa sobiq suv vaziri bilan birga Haddadin ustidan davlat prokurori ayblov e'lon qildi, ammo valiahd shahzoda Xasan foydasiga chetlashtirilgandan keyin ayblov bekor qilindi. Qirol Abdulla II 1999 yil fevralida vafotidan keyin otasining o'rnini egallagan.^[13]

1995-yil: megaproyektlar va modernizatsiya

1990-yillardan boshlab Iordaniya ikkita megaprojani amalga oshirdi, ya'ni 1 milliard AQSh dollari Disi suv tashish loyihasi AQSh dollari va 10 mlrd Qizil dengiz - O'lik dengiz kanali. Shuningdek, u boshqa yirik loyihalarni, jumladan As-Samra shahrida Amman uchun zamonaviy chiqindi suv tozalash inshootini qurish va Al-Wehda to'g'oni Yarmuk daryosida. Disi konveyeri ham, Samra zavodi ham suv tariflaridan tushgan xarajatlarni qoplash darajasining past bo'lishiga qaramay, Iordaniya suv sohasi tarixida birinchi marta muhim xususiy moliyalashtirishni jalb qildi.

1990 yilda Iroq tomonidan bosib olingandan keyin va tabiiy o'sishi tufayli Quvaytdan qochqinlar kirib kelganidan so'ng, Iordaniya aholisi 1990 yilga kelib 3 milliondan oshdi va 2000 yilga kelib 4,8 million kishini tashkil qildi. Bu esa suv balansini yanada yomonlashtirdi. Shuningdek, bu As-Samrada chiqindi suvlarni tozalash inshootining ortiqcha yuklanishiga olib keldi. Zavod talab qilinadigan chiqindi suv sifatini ishlab chiqara olmadi va Iordaniya vodiysidagi sug'orishga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Shunday qilib, zavodni xususiy sektorni jalb qilgan holda zamonaviyroq texnologiyalar bilan almashtirishga qaror qilindi. 2003 yilda, 25 yil Qurish-ishlatish-uzatish (BOT) shartnomasi frantsuz kompaniyasi, shu jumladan konsortsium bilan imzolandi Suez Environnement.^[14] Sug'orish uchun sifat jihatidan yaxshilangan suv bilan ta'minlaydigan zavod 2006 yilda foydalanishga topshirilgan. Suriya bilan hamkorlik nuqtai nazaridan 1987 yilda ikki hukumat o'rtasida 1953 yilgi shartnoma bilan taqqoslaganda Suriya uchun yanada qulay bo'lgan yangi suv taqsimlash to'g'risidagi shartnoma imzolandi va bu Suriya ichkarisidagi yuqori havzada sug'orish uchun suvdan foydalanishni ko'payishini e'tirof etdi. Ko'p kechiktirilgandan so'ng, 2001 yilda Yarmuk daryosidagi to'g'on hajmini dastlab rejalashtirilgan Maqarin to'g'oni bilan solishtirganda kamaytirish to'g'risida qaror qabul qilindi. To‘g‘on Al-Wehda to'g'oni (Birlik to'g'oni) 2011 yilda foydalanishga topshirilgan, ammo oqimning yuqori qismida Suriyalik abstraktsiyalar tufayli kutilganidan ancha kam suv bergan.

Raqamli suv bosh suv rejasi 2004 yilda boshlanib, birinchi Bosh rejaning o'rnini egalladi. Bu qaror qabul qiluvchilarga qishloq xo'jaligi, shahar foydalanish va sanoat kabi turli joylar va sohalarda suv iste'mol qilish tendentsiyalaridan kelib chiqqan holda rejalashtirish stsenariylariga asoslangan siyosat va strategiyalarni belgilashga imkon beradigan birlashtirilgan rejadir. Bosh reja talablar va resurslar bilan bog'liq barcha monitoring ma'lumotlarini o'z ichiga olishi kerak bo'lgan suv axborot tizimiga (WIS) ulangan edi.^[15][16]

Suv sohasini institutsional isloh qilish va modernizatsiyalashga oid Amman uchun boshqaruv shartnomasi 1999 yilda Frantsiyaning Lyonnaise des Eaux kompaniyasiga berilgan. Bu ko'plab yaxshilanishlarni keltirib chiqardi, garchi u shartnomaviy maqsadlarga etishmasa. 2007 yilda u tugadi va MAxuna ("Bizning suvimiz") jamoat shirkati ko'rinishidagi WAJ filiali tashkil etildi. 2004 yilda janubiy Aqaba shahrida Aqaba suv kompaniyasi (AWC) deb nomlangan WAJ ning sho'ba korxonasi sifatida birinchi tijorat yo'naltirilgan umumiy suv ta'minoti kompaniyasi tashkil etildi. Uchinchi suv kompaniyasi - Yarmouk Water Company (YWC) 2011 yilda Shimoliy Iordaniyada tashkil etilgan. 2013 yilda Miyaxuna suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya uchun javobgarlikni o'z zimmasiga oldi. Madaba gubernatorligi va 2014 yil yanvar oyida Zarqa viloyati jamoat-davlat boshqaruvi shartnomalari bo'yicha, ushbu ikki hokimiyatdagi xodimlar esa WAJ xodimlari bo'lib qoladilar.

2009 yil may oyida Qirol Abdulloh avvalgi 1998 yilgi suv strategiyasini o'rniga 2022 yilgacha bo'lgan yangi suv strategiyasini amalga oshirishni boshladi. Ushbu strategiya 15 yil davomida Iordaniya dinorining 5,86 milliard (8,24 milliard AQSh dollari) miqdoridagi investitsiyalarini o'z ichiga olgan. Iordaniya YaIMning 160% dan ortig'ini tashkil etadi. Shuningdek, u er osti suvlariga bo'lgan ishonchning 2007 yildagi 32% dan 17% gacha pasayishini, qishloq xo'jaligida tozalangan oqava suvlardan foydalanishni 10% dan 13% gacha va tuzsizlantirishdan 1% dan 31% gacha ko'paytirishni bashorat qildi. O'sha paytdagi suv vazirining so'zlariga ko'ra, Raed Abu Suud, tugallangandan keyin ham Disi suv tashish loyihasi, 2022 yilda suv tanqisligi 500 million kubometrni tashkil etadi, bu esa tuzsizlantirishni o'z ichiga olishi kerakligini ta'kidlaydi Qizil dengiz - O'lik dengiz kanali strategiyada. Strategiyada, shuningdek, suv to'g'risidagi yangi qonunni qabul qilish, operativni ma'muriy funktsiyalardan ajratish, shuningdek ishlab chiqarishni taqsimlash operatsiyalaridan ajratish, maslahat funktsiyalari bilan suv kengashini tuzish va suvni tartibga solish komissiyasini tuzish kabi institutsional islohotlar ko'zda tutilgan edi.^[17] Huquqiy va institutsional islohotlar amalga oshirilmagan bo'lsa ham Disi suv tashish loyihasi 2013 yilda turk firmasi tomonidan yakunlandi Gama. 2012 yildan beri Suriyadan bir millionga yaqin qochoqlar oqimi Iordaniya aholisini to'qqiz milliondan oshdi. Bu suvga bo'lgan talabni sezilarli darajada oshirdi. Moliya etishmasligi sababli Qizil dengiz - O'lik dengiz kanali hozircha asl shaklida boshqa ta'qib qilinmayapti. Buning o'rniga, kichraytirilgan, yanada aniqroq versiya izlanmoqda. Ushbu loyiha Iordaniya va Isroil o'rtasida suv almashinuvini o'z ichiga oladi, Iordaniya Aqabadan Janubiy Isroilgacha tuzsizlangan suv etkazib beradi, Isroil esa Galiley dengizidan Shimoliy Iordaniyaga qo'shimcha suv etkazib beradi. Tuzsizlantirish zavodidagi sho'r suv O'lik dengizga etkazib berilishi kerak. 2015 yilda Aqabadagi tuzsizlantirish zavodi uchun savdolar boshlandi va zavod 2017 yilda o'sha paytdagi Bosh vazir Xani Mulki tomonidan ochildi. U ishlab chiqaradigan toza suv yiliga taxminan 5 million kubometrni tashkil etadi, ichimlik suvi, qishloq xo'jaligi va sanoat ehtiyojlari uchun ishlatiladi ^[18]

Kirish

Iordaniya suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya xizmatlarini ko'rsatishning yuqori darajasiga ko'tarildi (jadvalga qarang). Aholining 99,3 foizi foydalanish imkoniyatiga ega suv ta'minoti yaxshilandi, 99,5% gacha yaxshilangan sanitariya, bu boshqa rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlar bilan taqqoslaganda yuqori va Iordaniyaning juda kam manbalarini hisobga olgan holda.^[1] Jismoniy infratuzilma mavjud bo'lsa-da, mavjud suvning etishmasligi ko'plab uy xo'jaliklari uchun butilka va idishdagi suvga bo'lgan talabning oshishiga olib keladi.^[19]

WAJ ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, aholining atigi 65% ulangan kanalizatsiya tizimi. Yaxshilangan sanitariya sharoitlariga ega bo'lganlarning qolganlari joylarda sanitariya echimlaridan foydalanadilar septik tanklar. Ushbu septiklar, agar ular to'g'ri qoplanmagan bo'lsa, er osti suv qatlamlariga oqib chiqishi va ularni ifloslantirishi mumkin.

Xizmat sifati

Ta'minotning uzluksizligi

Iordaniyaning uzluksiz ichimlik suvi ta'minlaydigan yagona shahri bo'lgan Aqaba toshni tortib olinadigan Disi suvli qatlamidan tortib oladi.

Aholining aksariyati yashaydigan Iordaniya baland tog'larida suv ta'minoti odatda vaqti-vaqti bilan ta'minlanadi. Tomonidan 2008 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotga ko'ra Michigan universiteti, Amman singari yirik shaharlarda haftasiga bir marta va ba'zi qishloq joylarda o'n ikki kunda bir marta suv etkazib beriladi.^[2] 2007 yildagi so'rov natijalariga ko'ra etkazib berishning o'rtacha tezligi haftada Madaba gubernatorligida 1,5 kun, Balqa guberniyasida 2,9 kun va Zarqa guberniyasida 3,2 kunni tashkil etdi.^[5] Ammanda, Miyaxunaning suv taqsimlash rejasiga ko'ra, 2012 yilda 44 ta asosiy tarqatish zonalaridan 8 tasiga "favqulodda holatlardan tashqari" uzluksiz suv etkazib berildi. Boshqa aksariyat tarqatish zonalari haftasiga bir marta yoki 24 soat davomida suv olishlari kerak edi. jami 36-48 soat davomida haftasiga ikki marta.^[20] Haqiqiy ta'minot tarqatish dasturidan qay darajada qay darajada foydalanishi, ayniqsa yoz davrida aniq emas. 2013 yil yozida Disi-Amman konveyeri ish boshlagandan beri, Ammanga etkazib berishning uzluksizligi oshdi.

Vodiy Musa va qo'shni Taiba, B'Doul va Beida qishloqlari 2001 yilda yangi quduq koni qurilganidan va tarqatish tarmog'i tiklangandan so'ng, qisqa vaqt ichida doimiy suv ta'minotidan foydalangan Tog'larning kam sonli joylaridan biri edi.^[21] Biroq, faqat bir necha yil o'tgach, suv yana uzilib qoldi. Aqaba qirg'oq bo'yidagi shaharning yuqorisidagi tog 'tog' jinslarining qazilma toshlaridan tortib tortib olinadigan mo'l-ko'l suv ta'minoti tufayli doimo suv ta'minotidan bahramand bo'lgan.

Ichimlik suvi sifati

Ichish suv sifati Iordaniyada 2008 yil 286-sonli Iordaniya standarti tomonidan boshqariladi,^[22] ga asoslangan Jahon Sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti ichimlik suvi bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar. Iordaniya standartlari 2008 yilda va undan oldin 2001 yilda, ichimlik suvi ifloslanishining katta tarqalishidan keyin o'zgartirilgan Amman 1998 yil yozida poytaxtdagi yirik ichimlik suvini tozalash inshootining nosozligi tufayli. 2001 yilda ichimlik suvi namunalarida ifloslanish yuzaga kelganda aniq chora-tadbirlar standartning bir qismi bo'lgan protseduralarga kiritildi. 2005 yilda to'rtta viloyatdagi turli xil ichimlik suvi manbalarini o'rganish shuni ko'rsatdiki, ichimlik suvining sifati milliy fiziokimyoviy standartlarga mos keladi.^[23] Er osti suvlari sifatini kuzatish maqsadida har bir "er osti suv havzalarida" kuzatuv quduqlari tarmog'i o'rnatilgan.^[24] Uy sharoitida suv saqlanadi suv idishlari (odatda binolarning tepasida) suv ta'minotining navbatdagi turiga qadar ishlatilishi kerak. Iordaniya hukumati tomonidan 2011 yilda o'tkazilgan tadqiqotda uchta Amman tarqatish zonasida (Rasheed, Kharabsheh va Khalda) uydagi suv omborlarida olingan namunalarning 90% dan ortig'i xlor miqdori 0,2 mg / l dan 0,5 mg / l gacha bo'lgan.^[25] Ushbu qiymatlar JSST tomonidan ichimlik suvi bo'yicha ko'rsatmalar tavsiyalariga mos keladi.^[26] JSST ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, suvni "ichishga yaroqli" deb tasniflash mumkin.^[27] Ushbu natijalarga qaramasdan, Jordan Times gazetasining 2012 yilgi maqolasida, "[a] Jordan Water Company (Miyahuna) kompaniyasi tomonidan olib borilgan mijozlar ehtiyojini qondirish bo'yicha so'rov natijalariga ko'ra, mushtariylar ifloslanishidan qo'rqib, musluklar suvini ichishdan qochishgan".^[28]

Atıksu tozalash

Iordaniya birinchi chiqindi suvlarni tozalash inshooti 1968 yilda Amman yaqinidagi Ayn-G'azal shahrida tashkil etilgan (zavod hozirda As-Samra zavodi uchun oldindan tozalash inshooti bo'lib xizmat qilmoqda). Boshqa tozalash inshootlari qurilishi 1980 yillarning boshlarida boshlangan. Tozalash inshootlarining umumiy soni 2013 yilga kelib 28 tani tashkil etdi va 324000 m ga ishlov berdi³ kuniga (118 million m³/ yil), yoki yig'ilgan chiqindi suvning taxminan 98%. Hozirgacha eng katta tozalash inshooti Amman-Zarqa oqava suvlarini tozalash bilan shug'ullanadigan As-Samra zavodi bo'lib, bu barcha tozalangan chiqindi suvlarning taxminan 80 foizini tashkil qiladi. Dastlab zavod stabillashadigan suv havzasi texnologiyasidan foydalangan, ammo 2008 yilda faol loy texnologiyasidan foydalangan holda qayta qurilgan Qurish-ishlatish-uzatish shartnoma 2002 yilda imzolangan. 2012 yil iyun oyida hukumat tozalash inshootlarini 365 ming metrgacha kengaytirish bo'yicha shartnoma imzoladi³.^[29] Suv, asosan, sug'orish uchun qayta ishlatiladi Iordaniya vodiysi, tog'li hududlarda sug'orish uchun bir necha marta qayta ishlash va cheklangan sanoat qayta ishlatish bilan Aqaba.

Axborotga kirish imkoniyati

BMTning insonning toza ichimlik suvi va sanitariya-gigiena huquqlari bo'yicha maxsus ma'ruzachisining 2015 yilgi Hisoboti Suv va irrigatsiya va suv xo'jaligi vazirligini turli xil ommaviy axborot kanallari, shu jumladan Internet orqali ommaviy axborot tizimini yaratish orqali ko'proq ma'lumot olish uchun rag'batlantirdi. Ular suv va kanalizatsiya bilan bog'liq ma'lumotlarni, masalan, suv olish natijalarini o'z ichiga olishi kerak. Shunday qilib, insonning ma'lumot olish huquqini mustahkamlash. Hisobotga ko'ra, ushbu chora-tadbirlar aholining suv sifati, xizmatlarning ishonchliligi va odamlarni tarif islohotlarini qabul qilishlariga ishonchini qozonish uchun juda muhimdir.^[31]

Suvdan foydalanish va atrof-muhit to'g'risida xabardorlik

Suv tashiydigan mashinalar ko'plab Iordaniyaliklar uchun ichimlik suvining muhim manbai hisoblanadi.

Iordaniyada suv tanqisligi yuqori bo'lganligi sababli, aholi jon boshiga o'rtacha foydalanish ko'plab boshqa mamlakatlarga qaraganda pastroq. Tarmoq yo'qotilishidan oldin suv ishlab chiqarish kishi boshiga 120 litrni tashkil etadi, haqiqiy iste'mol esa jon boshiga 80 litrga to'g'ri keladi.^[3] Sharqiy Ammanda va Shimoliy gubernatorlikdagi 14 qishloqda suv iste'mol qilish odatlari bo'yicha o'tkazilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, aholi jon boshiga umumiy iste'mol kuniga 60-80 litrni tashkil etadi. Ushbu suvning taxminan 20-30% i umumiy foydalanish tizimidan tashqari manbalardan, shu jumladan, shisha idishlar, tankerlardan sotib olingan suvdan, yomg'ir suvini yig'ib olish va buloqlar. Qishloq joylarda so'rovda qatnashgan uy xo'jaliklarining 28% yomg'ir suvini yig'di va ichish uchun sisternalarda saqladi, chunki ular suv quvurlaridan ko'ra sifatli deb hisobladilar. Sharqiy Ammanda uy xo'jaliklarining 12% suvni katta butilkalarda sotib olgan va 30% xususiy tankerlardan suv sotib olgan. Ko'pgina uy xo'jaliklarida hajmi 1-2 metr bo'lgan tomni saqlash uchun tanklar mavjud³.^[32] Aholini va oilani sog'lig'ini saqlash bo'yicha 2009 yilgi tadqiqot natijalariga ko'ra, uy xo'jaliklarining 31% shisha suvdan, 7% yomg'ir suvidan, 2% tanker suvidan va 60% muslukadagi suvdan foydalanadilar. birlamchi ichimlik suvi manbai. Xuddi shu so'rov natijalariga ko'ra, uy xo'jaliklarining 22% musluk suvini filtrlaydi va aksariyati tozalashning har qanday turini qo'llamaydi.^[33] 2007-08 yillarda Germaniya-Iordaniya suv ta'minoti dasturining O'rta hokimliklar Zarqa, Balqa va Madaba shaharlarida o'tkazgan so'rovi shuni ko'rsatdiki, uy xo'jaliklarining 79 foizi ichimlik suvining asosiy manbai sifatida musht suvidan foydalanadi va 37 foiz uy xo'jaliklari suvni ichishdan oldin tozalashadi. 5 litrli qutilarda sotib olingan va yuk mashinalarida suv etkazib beradigan xususiy suv sotuvchilar tomonidan tozalangan suv 15% uy xo'jaliklari uchun ichimlik suvining asosiy manbai hisoblanadi.^[5][34]

Hukumat va turli nodavlat notijorat tashkilotlari aholining suv tanqisligi to'g'risida xabardorligini oshirish va suvni tejashga ko'maklashish uchun harakatlarni amalga oshirmoqdalar. Bir misol - 2007 yildan beri Iordaniya bo'ylab beshta mahalliy jamoalarda amalga oshirilgan "Suvli dono ayollar" tashabbusi. Ushbu tashabbus qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan 50 ta jamoatchilikni rivojlantirish markazlarida tashkil etilgan ko'ngillilarning sa'y-harakatlariga asoslangan Iordaniya Hashimiylar Inson Taraqqiyoti Jamg'armasi (JOHUD).^[35] U suvni tejash, "o'zgaruvchan kashshoflar" deb nomlangan ayol ko'ngillilarni o'qitadi. yomg'ir suvini yig'ib olish, suvni saqlash, sanitariya-tesisat, gigiena va uy bog'dorchiligi uchun suvdan foydalanish. Shunday qilib, ayollar uchun daromad olish va shisha suv, yuk mashinalaridan sotib olingan suv va yollangan sanitariya-tesisat xizmatlari uchun xarajatlarni kamaytirish imkoniyatlari yaratiladi.^[36] Bundan tashqari, ushbu tashabbus maktab qizlariga ham tegishli^[37] va bolalar, masalan. suv masalalariga bag'ishlangan multfilm orqali.^[38]

Suv balansi

Iordaniya eng to'rttadan biri hisoblanadi suv kam dunyodagi mamlakatlar.^[17] Cheklangan suv resurslari ta'sir qilishadi ifloslanish. Aholining o'sishi mavjud suv resurslariga bosimni kuchaytirishi kutilmoqda.

Milliy suv strategiyasida "suv tanqisligi" "suvga bo'lgan ehtiyoj" minus "suv resurslari" sifatida belgilanadi. "Suvga talab" iqtisodiy narxlarda ishlatilmaydi, bu erda narx narxiga bog'liq. Buning o'rniga talab siyosat maqsadlaridan kelib chiqqan holda suvga bo'lgan ehtiyoj sifatida tavsiflanadi. Shunday qilib, qishloq xo'jaligida suvga bo'lgan ehtiyoj strategiyasida keltirilgan ko'rsatkich - 1080 million m³ (MCM) / yil - bu suvning haqiqiy ishlatilishidan taxminan 600 MCM / yilga nisbatan ancha katta. 2007 yilda qishloq xo'jaligi "suvga bo'lgan ehtiyoj" ning 72 foizini, shaharlarning ulushi 24 foizni, turizm va sanoatning ulushi mos ravishda 3 va 1 foizni tashkil etdi.^[17] 565 million m suv tanqisligi³ (MCM) / yil 2007 yilga asosan qishloq xo'jaligidagi "suvga bo'lgan ehtiyoj" haqidagi taxminlar sabab bo'ladi.

Kommunal va sanoat suv ehtiyojlari 2007 yildan 2022 yilgacha (+ 29%) yiliga 276 MCM ga oshadigan Strategiya loyihalari, qishloq xo'jaligi suvlariga bo'lgan ehtiyoj esa to'xtab qoladi. Strategiyada suv ta'minotini uchta chora-tadbirlar yordamida oshirish ko'zda tutilgan:

• ko'proq foydalanish qayta tiklangan suv qishloq xo'jaligi va sanoatda (yiliga + 156 MCM),
• qazilma er osti suvlaridan foydalanishning aniq o'sishi (yiliga + 59 MCM) Disi suv tashish loyihasi 2013 yilda yakunlangan va
• qismi sifatida dengiz suvining tuzsizlanishi Qizil dengiz - O'lik dengiz kanali (+ 500 MCM / yil) 2022 yilda qurilishi kerak.^[17]

Ushbu chora-tadbirlar shahar va ishlab chiqarish suvlariga bo'lgan talabning prognoz qilinishini qoplash uchun zarur bo'lgan miqdordan ko'proq suv bilan ta'minlashga imkon beradi. Qolgan miqdor qishloq xo'jaligidagi "suv ehtiyojlarini" qoplash, er osti suvlaridan ortiqcha foydalanishni kamaytirish yoki chuchuk suvli suv ekotizimlarini tiklash uchun ishlatilishi mumkin.

Suv resurslari

Iordaniyaning suv resurslariga odatiy va noan'anaviy manbalar kiradi, ikkinchisi, masalan. suvni qayta ishlatish va tuzsizlantirishdan iborat.

An'anaviy suv resurslari

Iordaniyada an'anaviy suv resurslari er osti va er usti suvlaridan iborat. Mamlakat bo'ylab o'n ikki er osti suv havzasi aniqlandi. Barqarorlik nuqtai nazaridan ularning ahvoli juda muhim deb ta'riflanishi mumkin, chunki ularning ba'zilari maksimal darajada ishlatilib, boshqalari haddan tashqari ekspluatatsiya qilinib, kelajakda foydalanishlariga tahdid solmoqda. Qayta tiklanadigan er osti suvlarining uzoq muddatli xavfsiz unumdorligi yiliga 275 million kubometrni tashkil etadi. Asosiy er usti suv manbalari quyidagilardir Iordan daryosi, Yarmuk daryosi va Zarqa daryosi.

Iordan daryosi oqimining katta qismi yo'naltiriladi Isroil va Yarmuk daryosi oqimining katta qismi Suriya, Iordaniyaga ozgina ulush qoldirgan. Suriya va Iordaniya Yarmuk daryosining qurilishiga tayyorgarlik ko'rish maqsadida 1987 yilda o'zaro suv almashinuvi to'g'risida ikki tomonlama shartnomani imzoladilar Al-Wehda to'g'oni ikki mamlakat chegarasida. Ga ilova Isroil-Iordaniya tinchlik shartnomasi 1994 yilda Iordan daryosi va Yarmuk daryosining quyi suvlari ikki mamlakat o'rtasida taqsimlanishini belgilaydi. Ushbu shartnoma doirasida Isroil yoz oylarida Iordaniyaga yiliga 20 million kubometr suv etkazib beradi Galiley dengizi Isroil qishda Jalil dengizida saqlash uchun Yarmuk daryosidan nasos bilan haydab chiqaradigan miqdordagi evaziga.^[39] Shartnomada, shuningdek, 10 million m etkazib berish ko'rsatilgan³ Isroildan Iordaniyaga tuzsizlangan sho'r suv va aniqlanmagan manbadan Iordaniya uchun yiliga qo'shimcha 50 million kubometr ichimlik suvi etkazib berish.^[40] Bu suv Galiley dengizidan yoki sho'r suvli buloqlardan kelishi mumkin.

Zarqa daryosi sanoat, shahar chiqindi suvlari va qattiq ifloslangan noaniq manbalar. The Shoh Talal to'g'oni, Iordaniyaning eng katta er usti suv ombori, suvning past darajasi va ifloslanishiga duch keladi. Ammo yangi As-Samra chiqindi suv tozalash inshooti qurilishi natijasida Qirol Talal suv omboridagi suv sifati yaxshilandi. Milliy suv strategiyasi yiliga qayta tiklanadigan chuchuk suv resurslarini 575 million kubometr va yiliga 665 million kubometr bo'lgan 90 million kub metr / yil tozalangan oqava suvlarni baholaydi.

Suvni qayta ishlatish

Amman-Zarqa hududidan qayta ishlangan chiqindi suvlar Zarqa daryosi orqali Iordaniya vodiysiga oqib keladi va u erda sug'orish uchun bilvosita qayta ishlatiladi.

Suvni qayta ishlatish Iordaniyaning suv balansidagi tobora muhim element hisoblanadi. Tozalangan oqova suvlarni qayta ishlatish ("qayta tiklangan suv" deb ham ataladi) bilvosita ham, chiqindi suvlar daryoga quyilgandan va chuchuk suv bilan aralashgandan keyin ham, to'g'ridan-to'g'ri, masalan. chuchuk suv bilan aralashmasdan.

Strategiyalar va muammolar. Qayta tiklangan suvdan ko'proq foydalanish Iordaniyaning milliy suv strategiyasining bir qismidir. Uning bir qismi sifatida qayta tiklangan suvni narxlash va sotish strategiyasi yaratildi.^[41] Qishloq xo'jaligi vazirligining qo'shimcha xodimlari kompyuterlarga asoslangan axborot tizimidan foydalanib, fermerlarga optimallashtirish bo'yicha maslahat berishadi urug'lantirish sug'orish suvining sifati, joylashishi, hosili, tuproq turi va boshqa omillarni hisobga olgan holda. Ushbu sa'y-harakatlarga qaramay, Iordaniya vodiysidagi aksariyat dehqonlar qayta tiklangan suvning ozuqaviy tarkibidan xabardor emaslar, ammo namoyish maydonchalari tajribasi shuni ko'rsatadiki, undan foydalanish bilan o'g'itlar xarajatlari 60 foizga kamayishi mumkin. Chiqindilarni qayta ishlatishda muammolardan biri bu sanoat tarmoqlari tozalanmagan oqova suvlarni kanalizatsiya tizimiga quyishidir. Shu bilan birga, ushbu sanoat chiqindi suvlari tarkibida og'ir metallarni va shahar chiqindi suv tozalash inshootlari olib tashlay olmaydigan boshqa moddalar mavjud.^[42]

Standartlar. Iordaniyaning JS893: 2006 standarti tozalangan maishiy chiqindi suvlarni to'g'ridan-to'g'ri qayta ishlatishni xom ashyo iste'mol qilinmaydigan ekinlar uchun cheklaydi.^[43] Pishgan sabzavotlar, bog'lar va shaharlarni obodonlashtirish / yo'llar (A sinf), mevali daraxtlar, yo'llarning chekkalari va yashil maydonlar (B klassi) va em-xashak va sanoat ekinlari va o'rmon daraxtlari (S sinf) kabi qayta ishlatishning turli toifalari uchun turli xil standartlarni belgilaydi.^[44] 202/2007-sonli sanoat chiqindi suv standarti spetsifikatsiyasi yuqoridagi standartlarni to'ldiradi, shuningdek har xil qayta ishlatish toifalarini ajratib turadi.^[45]

Furthermore, a Reuse Coordination Committee has been established.^[41] A crop monitoring program confirmed that use of treated wastewater in Jordan meets the health-based target recommended by the JSSV guidelines for the safe use of treated wastewater.^[42]

Indirect reuse of reclaimed water from Greater Amman. The qayta tiklangan suv (treated wastewater) from the largest wastewater treatment plant in Jordan, As-Samra, flows through the Zarqa River into the King-Talal-Reservoir where it mixes with freshwater. From there it flows into the King-Abdullah-Canal in the Jordan Valley where it further mixes with freshwater. The diluted reclaimed water is reused on about 4,000 farms covering 10,000 hectares in the Southern part of the valley, mostly using drip irrigation.^[42]

Wadi Musa where the first pilot project for direct reuse of treated wastewater in agriculture in Jordan was implemented.

Direct reuse projects. According to one estimate, 1,500 ha were irrigated with reclaimed water in the vicinity of treatment plants as of 2009 in 15 locations, of which the biggest are near As-Samra (510 ha), Aqaba (208 ha), Ramtha (121 ha) and Wadi Musa (107 ha). Crops irrigated are forage crops and tree crops.^[45] One of the first pilot projects for direct reuse was implemented in Wadi Musa with support from USAID. Water was first used to irrigate a demonstration farm, and then the fields of nearby farmers.^[46] Another pilot project was initiated using wastewater from the small Wadi Hassan treatment plant to irrigate green spaces on the campus of the University of Irbid, and commercial fruit plantations.^[47] In most cases of direct reuse, the Water Authority of Jordan, the operator of most municipal wastewater treatment plants in Jordan, has concluded contracts with farmers. The total area irrigated under contracts with WAJ is 760 ha, or about half the total irrigated area. It is thus about 12 times smaller than the area irrigated with indirectly reclaimed water from the As-Samra plant in the Jordan Valley.^[43]

Planned reuse of reclaimed water from Greater Irbid in the Jordan Valley. A major water reuse project is being planned to reuse water from three wastewater treatment plants in the area of Irbid in the North of Jordan through a project supported in the framework of Jordanian-German cooperation. As of 2006, only 14% of the wastewater from these plants was being reused. An explanation for this is that farmers in the Jordan Valley are reluctant to use the reclaimed water, which they perceive to be of poor quality, for irrigation. The wastewater thus flows into the Jordan River, unused. In the future, the treated effluent from the three plants will flow through a pipe into the Jordan Valley, generating hydropower from the elevation differential of more than 1,000m. It will then be mixed with freshwater and delivered to the farmers in a quality that is acceptable to them.

Tuzsizlantirish

Tuzsizlantirish, which includes both desalination of sea water and desalination of brackish water, is another important non-conventional water resource for Jordan. The key project for sea water desalination is the Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal project which is yet to be completed. The most important plant for desalination of brackish water is the Ma'in-Mujib system which supplies water to Amman.

Impact of climate change on the water balance

In 2009 a government report noted that "Jordan’s remarkable development achievements areunder threat due to the crippling water scarcity, which is expected to be aggravated by climate change."^[48] Rainfall is expected to decline significantly and evaporation and transpiration of plants will increase due to increased temperatures.

Infratuzilma

Jordan's water resources are located far away from its population centers, in particular the Greater Amman area where about half the country's population lives and which lies at about 1,000 meter above sea level. To address this challenge, Jordan has developed an extensive water supply infrastructure to provide water for both irrigation and municipal uses.

Existing infrastructure

The Mujib dam stores water from Wadi Mujib which is then mixed with desalinated water from brackish springs near the shore of the Dead Sea and then pumped up to Amman for drinking water supply.

The key elements of Jordan's overall water infrastructure are

• The Al-Wehda to'g'oni ustida Yarmuk daryosi;
• The Qirol Abdulloh kanali (KAC) in the Iordaniya vodiysi which is fed primarily by the Yarmuk daryosi, the Mukhaibah springs near the Yarmouk River and a number of wadis draining into the Jordan Valley;
• the As-Samra wastewater treatment plant that treats most of Greater Amman's wastewater and discharges it to the Zarqa daryosi; va
• The King Talal Dam ustida Zarqa daryosi from where the water returns to the KAC downstream of Deir Alla for irrigation in the Lower Jordan Valley;

The following systems provide drinking water for the Amman-Zarqa metropolitan area:

• The Disi suv tashish loyihasi that extracts 100 million m³ (2.6×10¹⁰ US gal) of water a year from the fossil Disi aquifer 325 kilometres (202 mi) south of Amman.^[49]
• the Deir Alla-Amman system pumps up to 90 million m³ (2.4×10¹⁰ US gal) a year water from the KAC to Amman over a height of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) and treats it in the Zai water treatment plant;^[50]
• the Ma'in-Mujib system desalinates up to 38 million m³ (1.0×10¹⁰ US gal) per year of brackish water from the northeastern shore of the Dead Sea, stores it in Mujib Reservoir and pumps it to Amman, also covering a difference in altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft).^[51]
• a pipeline from a wellfield near the Azraq oasis to the East, local wells, and a small wellfield South of Amman.

Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal

The proposed Red Sea-Dead Sea Canal is a multibillion-dollar plan to build a canal from the Qizil dengiz to the slowly evaporating O'lik dengiz. The project also incorporates the construction of a desalination plant. It is expected to provide Jordan with 500 million cubic metres of water annually. In August 2008, the Jordanian Minister of Water and Irrigation Raed Abu Suud denoted the project as "the solution to our water problems."^[49] The level of the Dead Sea has been continuously falling since the early 1930s at an average rate of 0·7 m per year. The water level, as of February 1998, is about 410·9 m below mean sea level.^[52]

Suv ta'minoti va kanalizatsiya uchun javobgarlik

Qonuniy asos

Water and sanitation are regulated mainly by the Water Authority of Jordan Law No. 18 of 1988 and its amendments, Jordan Valley Authority Law No. 30 of 2001 and Ministry of Water and Irrigation Law No. 54 of 1992 and its amendments. Other relevant laws include Public Health Law No. 47 of 2008, Environmental Protection Law No. 85 of 2006 and Groundwater By-Law No. 85 of 2002. Jordan does not yet have a comprehensive water law, although a draft law is being discussed. The bill is supposed to define the structure and functions of the different ministries and other institutions managing the water and sanitation sectors. The BMTning maxsus ma'ruzachisi on the human right to safe water drinking water and sanitation stated in a 2014 report: "[a]dopting a comprehensive water law, is an important first step for the realization of the human right to water and to sanitation."^[53]

Siyosat va tartibga solish

The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the official apex body responsible for the formulation of national water strategies, policies and planning, subject to approval by the Council of Ministers. The MWI has been established in 1988 through a bylaw. The establishment of the MWI was in response to Jordan's recognition for the need of a more integrated approach to national water management. Since its establishment, MWI has been supported by several donor organizations that have assisted in the development of water policy and water master planning as well as in restructuring the water sector. Two key agencies in the water sector are under the authority of the Ministry: The first of them is the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) which is mainly in charge of water and sanitation service provision. It provides its services directly or through public companies that it owns (see below). Moreover, WAJ is also responsible, together with the Ministry, for water resources planning and monitoring. It also regulates water abstraction by all users, including itself, by issuing licenses. WAJ thus combines both regulatory and service provision functions.

The second institution directly subordinate to the MWI is the Performance Monitoring Unit (PMU), previously called Programme Management Unit. It is in charge of projects with private sector participation. It has also carried out major investment projects such as the water loss reduction program in Amman and has regulated the private operator in Amman from 1999 to 2006. The PMU was supposed to be an embryonic unit for a future semi-autonomous water regulatory agency for the entire country, to be established by law outside of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation. As a step in that direction, a Water Sector Audit Unit (WSAU) was established in the PMU in May 2008. The unit has set up a benchmarking system using performance indicators that have initially been applied to the Aqaba Water Company and Miyahuna.^[54] Due to the absence of a regulatory agency, tariff setting is the responsibility of the Cabinet, after proposal from the Ministry of Water and Irrigation.^[12]

Xizmat ko'rsatuvchi provayderlar

WAJ is responsible for planning, construction, operation and maintenance of the public water supply and sewer services either directly or indirectly through its subsidiaries. It has been established as an autonomous corporate body, with financial and administrative independence linked with the Minister of Water and Irrigation.

One of WAJ's subsidiaries is the Aqaba Water Company (AWC), a public company established in August 2004 as Jordan's first semi-autonomous water utility. It is owned by WAJ (85%) and the Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZA; 15%) whose establishment triggered the establishment of AWC. A second public water company, the Jordan Water Company (Miyahuna), was set up in 2006 for the Governorate of Amman. The company, which was created to take over service responsibility from a private operator, is a 100% subsidiary of WAJ. A third public company, the Yarmouk Water Company (YWC), has been be set up in 2010, serving the four Northern Governorates of Jordan, namely Irbid, Jerash, Ajloun va Mafraq. YWC is also a 100% subsidiary of WAJ and replaces the Northern Governorates Water Administration (NGWA). In 2013 Miyahuna was given the responsibility for water supply and sanitation in Madaba gubernatorligi and in January 2014 in Zarqa viloyati under public-public management contracts, while the employees in these two governorates remain employees of WAJ.

Private participation

Water distribution and sewerage in Amman were operated by a private French company from 1999 to 2006.

Amman management contract. 1999 yilda, a public-private partnership (PPP) started with the signing of a Management Contract between WAJ and the private joint venture Lyonnaise des Eaux - Montgomery Watson - Arabtech Jardaneh (LEMA), led by the French company Lyonnaise des Eaux, now known as Suez Environnement. According to the contract, LEMA was responsible for operating and managing water and wastewater services in the Greater Amman area on behalf of WAJ. The original five-year contract which began in August 1999 was extended until December 2006. The contract was intended to strengthen the technical structure and management capability as well as to develop the skills and knowledge of the staff. To this end, a small team of experienced expatriates worked with, and trained, around 1250 local staff. LEMA received treated water from number of WAJ sources. It also collected wastewater and transported it to treatment plants. The company was able to comply with 12 out of 15 performance targets. In the service area, i.e. in the Amman Governorate, access to supply increased from 90% in 2000 to universal access in 2005. At the same time, sewer connections increased from 69% to 80%. In 2007, the Jordan Water Company Miyaxuna replaced LEMA after its contract had been extended one final time for an extra six months.^[55]

As-Samra Build-Operate-Transfer. The wastewater treatment plant As-Samra, the largest such plant in Greater Amman, is being operated by a consortium led by SUEZ under a 25-year Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) contract with WAJ.

Madaba Micro Private Sector Participation. In Madaba gubernatorligi, a different model of private sector participation (PSP), called Micro PSP, has been carried out starting in 2006. The Micro PSP involved outsourcing customer service operations to Engicon, a local operator hired on a three-year performance-based contract. Aims of the project were to improve water and wastewater revenue, to increase the billing rate and to develop the customer management organisation, thereby improving efficiency. To achieve this, Engicon trained staff, surveyed and mapped all subscribers and regulated routes to meter readers (to eliminate reader monopoly). The Micro-PSP with Engicon had a variety of positive effects for the Madaba Water Administration: As a result of the cooperation, the Madaba Water Administration could start issuing its own bills instead of having to rely on WAJ structures. The accuracy of meter reading improved and net billed water increased by 75%. Net collections increased from 0.9 million in 2005 to 1.9 million in 2008. The levels of daromadsiz suv (NRW) initially dropped from an average of 45% to 34%, but in 2009 they were back at 40% due to an increase in water pumping pressure. Advantages of the Micro-PSP model include the fact that WAJ maintained asset ownership and that all revenue collected went to WAJ, so that investment costs could be fully recovered within 13 months of operation. The performance-based contract set strong incentives for the private operator to deliver concrete results.^[56][57][58]

Nodavlat tashkilotlar

15 dan ortiq nodavlat tashkilotlar (NNT) work directly or indirectly on water issues in Jordan, including the Jordan Environment Society^[59] (JES) and the Tabiatni muhofaza qilish qirollik jamiyati. NGOs carry out awareness projects and provide support to community projects together with national and international partners. NGOs are particularly engaged in suv yig'ish and water reuse. The Qirollik ilmiy jamiyati, through its Environmental Research Center, undertakes applied research including water quality assessments and wastewater management.^[60]

Community-based solutions

In addition to large-scale solutions there are also several community-based approaches aiming at a more sustainable use of Jordan's water resources. An important fosterer of these small-scale community-based approaches is the “Community Based Initiatives for Water Demand Management Project” (CBIWD), a project organised by the Ministry of Water and Irrigation in cooperation with Mehribonlik korpusi, Iordaniya daryosi fondi va Qirollik ilmiy jamiyati tomonidan qo'llab-quvvatlanadigan USAID.^[61][62] The CBIWD supports a variety of project types, among them e.g. yomg'ir suvini yig'ib olish va kulrang suv reuse projects.^[61]

The yomg'ir suvini yig'ib olish projects are mostly located in Jordan's North since rainfall is higher in this region than in the rest of the country. The communities, who are often not connected to the piped network, use harvested rainwater instead of or complementary to piped freshwater.

Concerning the reuse of greywater, Jordan's Ministry of Water promotes this alternative source especially in the agricultural sector, but also in hotels, government premises and on the individual household level.^[61] The most important motivation for using greywater - next to saving freshwater - is to cut down water bills.

Samaradorlik

Ulushi daromadsiz suv (NRW) - water which is produced but not billed - was estimated at approx. 50% nationwide in 2014. This amounts to an estimated physical leakage of 76 billion litres per year, which could meet the needs of 2.6 million people (more than a third of the population.^[63] The main reasons leading to this high rate are leakage, by-passing of meters, illegal connections, unreliable suv hisoblagichlari and problems concerning the reading of those meters. Leakages also affect water pressure and quality. Stolen water is used for irrigation or sold through water tankers, which reduces the amount available for official water supply and increases the price. Measures to decrease the rate of NRW can thus contribute to relieve the high pressure on water resources. The Government, in its National Water Strategy, aims at reducing non-revenue water to 25% by 2022, and technical losses to below 15%. The Strategy thus also includes strengthening the criminalization of suv o'g'irlash and illegal wells.^[64] Under a nationwide campaign to end water theft and violations on water networks and resources, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation, water companies and security authorities sealed 26 illegal wells in January 2015, seized and confiscated 30 drilling rigs, as well as dismantled 408 illegal fixtures on water mains and pipes across the Kingdom. According to WAJ, hundreds of thousands of stolen and wasted cubic metres of water have been saved since a “serious crackdown” on water theft and violations was initiated in August 2013.^[65]

In Amman, the level of non-revenue water has been reduced from an estimated 46% in 2005 to an estimated 34% in 2010. However, during the same period the average hours of service per week declined from 66 to 36.^[66]

The UN Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation called in a 2014 report on donors to prioritize their cooperation in tackling non-revenue water through small scale, effective interventions.^[67]

Moliyaviy jihatlar

Xarajatlarni qoplash

Water and sewer services in Jordan are heavily subsidized. The revenue covers only part of the operation and maintenance costs, especially after the near-doubling of electricity tariffs in 2011 since 14% of electricity in Jordan is used to pump drinking water and to treat wastewater. Subsidies to the water sector amount to more than 0.4% of GDP.^[7]

Tariff structure and level

Water and sewer tariffs in Jordan are differentiated by geographic area, type of use and volume of use. In areas served by public companies - the governorates of Amman, Aqaba, Irbid, Jerash, Ajloun and Mafraq - tariffs are higher than in the rest of the country where services are provided by WAJ. Residential water and sewer tariffs use an increasing-block system, under which users pay a higher tariff per m³ if they consume more water. The first block, corresponding to a consumption of 18m³ per quarter, is a minimum charge independent of the amount of water consumed. Water and sewer tariffs for non-residential use (commercial and industrial users) are about ten to twenty times higher respectively than residential water and sewer tariffs in the lowest consumption block.

In areas served by public companies, as of 2015, the residential minimum charge was JD5.22/quarter for water and sewerage. This corresponds to an average water tariff of JD0.14/m³ and a sewer tariff of JD0.04/m³ for 18m³ chorakda For a consumption level of 36m³ per quarter the average water and sewer tariff was JD0.24/m³ and JD0.14/m³ navbati bilan. The tariff for each next m³ increases until it reaches JD1.92/m³ and JD1.11/m³ respectively for water and sewerage at a consumption of more than 122 m³/quarter. Tariffs for non-residential customers were JD1.30/m³ and 0,87 m³ respectively above a consumption of 6 m³/quarter, independently of the level of consumption.^[4][9] There is also a sewerage tax that is set at 3% of the assessed property value, which is charged in addition to the sewer tariff. Despite rising property values the sewerage tax revenue has remained constant for many years at JD15m per year, representing less than 10% of water revenues.^[7]

Tariflarni o'zgartirish

Any adjustment of water tariffs requires Cabinet approval. In September 2009, King Abdullah stated that water tariffs would not be increased.^[68] In June 2010 the government announced the first tariff increase since 1997, emphasizing that low-volume consumers would not be affected because the tariff in the first block remained unchanged.^[69] The tariff increase, said to amount to only 9% for volumes beyond the first block, would become effective in January 2011. At the same time, the billing cycle was changed from every three months to monthly. Furthermore, tariffs in five governorates were silently substantially increased to the same level as in Amman. In February 2012 the Cabinet decided to return to the quarterly billing cycle and to further increase tariffs in the higher blocks of consumption.^[70]

Muvofiqlik

Combined water and sewer bills amount, on average, to less than 0.5% of total household expenditures and are thus quite affordable.^[7] The intermittent supply leads many to rely on bottled or tanked water, which is about 8 to 10 times higher than piped water, so that total household expenditures are often much higher than the utility bill. Prices paid to water vendors are 4 to 8 JD per m³. In 2007 it was estimated that an average poor household with 6 members in the Middle Governorates spends 31-39 JD per year on its water and sewer bill at a consumption of 70 liter/capita/day, corresponding to only 0.4% of household expenditures. However, if other items are added the picture changes substantially: it costs 35 JD per year to depreciate the cost of a 2 m³ rooftop storage tank over 10 years; 160 JD per year to buy 2 liters/capita/day of bottled water at a price of 0.04 JD per liter (0.80 JD per canister of 5 gallons); and 153 JD per year to buy the equivalent of 28 liters/capita/day at a price of 2.50 JD/m³ from water vendors. This amounts to 374 JD per year and household, corresponding to 6.3% of expenditures. In addition, for households not connected to the sewer network the cost of emptying septic tanks at a cost between 21 and 40 JD per load needs to be added to calculate total water and sanitation expenditures. In conclusion, the cost of the water bill thus is only a fraction of total water expenditures, and household water expenditures could be lowered significantly if a sufficient quantity of good quality water was supplied on a reliable basis.^[5]

Sarmoya

Jordan's Water Strategy 2009–2022 includes investments of Jordanian Dinar 5.86 billion (US$8.24 billion) over a period of 15 years, corresponding to more than 160% of Jordan's GDP.^[17] According to an earlier water sector investment plan for the time from 1998 to 2010 (published in 1997), the estimated costs for water projects were US$1,916 million, while sanitation projects were estimated at US$926 million, corresponding to about US$240 million per year.^[71] Actual investments towards the end of that period were only slightly below these expected figures: They stood at 900m JD in the six years from 2005 to 2010, averaging 150m JD (US$215) or 28 JD (US$40) per capita.^[7]

Moliyalashtirish

In the period 2005–10, public investments in water supply and sanitation were financed from the following sources:

• JD 325m (36%) through the sale of WAJ bonds:
• JD 305m (34%) by the Jordanian treasury;
• JD 255m (27%) through grants from foreign donors.
• JD 30m (3%) through foreign loans.

WAJ local currency bonds had a maturity of only three years, are government-guaranteed and pay 4 to 7% interest. WAJ debt increased by 900% to JD 621 million in only five years.^[7] 73% of grants were provided by USAID. Since then, the share of loan financing in total financing has increased, including loans from Germany and France.

Additional financing not included in the figures above is obtained from private sources through Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) projects. There are two such projects in the water sector, one to finance the Samra wastewater treatment plant and the other and largest one to finance the Disi-Amman carrier. The latter is partially financed by about US$190 million of private equity from GAMA Energy, a joint venture between the Turkish firm GAMA Holding and the US firm General Electric Energiya moliyaviy xizmatlari. In addition, the government provided a grant of US$300 million and loans totaling US$475 million by the Chet elda xususiy investitsiya korporatsiyasi Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, Evropa investitsiya banki va Proparko Frantsiya.^[72]

Tashqi hamkorlik

The major external public donors in Jordan's water supply and sanitation are the United States, Japan, Germany and the European Union, primarily through the Evropa investitsiya banki (EIB). Other donors are the Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti (BMT), Jahon banki, Islom taraqqiyot banki, the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, the Saudi Fund for Development, the Abu Dhabi Fund, the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development, Italiya, Frantsiya, Norvegiya, Janubiy Koreya, The Gollandiya, Kanada, Ispaniya, Shvetsiya, Xitoy va Liviya.^[9] The following paragraphs summarize the cooperation with some of Jordan's most active external partners in the water sector.

Evropa investitsiya banki

The Evropa investitsiya banki (EIB) approved two loans for the rehabilitation of the water supply network in Greater Amman in 1996 and 1998 for a total of 49 million Euro. WAJ has benefited from 8 EIB loans amounting to 61.5 million Euro between 1984 and 1998.^[73]

Frantsiya

The Frantsiya taraqqiyot agentligi AFD and its private investment arm PROPARCO support the Disi-Amman conveyor through two projects, each of US$100 million, approved in 2009.^[74]

Germaniya

Germany has been engaged in supporting the Jordanian water sector for several decades through three agencies: GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit ) in charge of technical cooperation, the development Bank KfW in charge of financial cooperation and the Federal Geological Agency BGR in charge of hydro-geological studies.

GIZ. The German technical cooperation agency GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit ) ni qo'llab-quvvatlaydi Management of Water Resources Programme initiated in 2006. The Jordanian partner is the MWI. The main objective of the program is to increase sustainable use of the available water resources. Furthermore, it seeks to resolve conflicts between the different water demanding sectors, namely the domestic, industrial and agricultural sector. To achieve these objectives, the program "examines legal and institutional frameworks", offers training, supports the establishment of databases and sets up "organisational structures and processes to improve efficiency". The use of treated wastewater in agriculture and the establishment of water user associations is encouraged. GIZ works together with German companies which participate under the framework of a public-private partnership.^[75]

KfW. The German government-owned development Bank KfW has a series of water and sanitation projects in Jordan with a total commitment of Euro 245m in 2009. The currently largest project supports the extension of sewer networks and the construction of a wastewater treatment plant in Irbid through a Euro 62.95m loan approved in 2000. The treated wastewater is to be reused for irrigated agriculture.^[76] Other projects approved around 2000 include a Water Loss Reduction project for Irbid va Jerash (EUR 18.2 m loan), a Water Loss Reduction project for the Northern Governorates (EUR 21.7 m loan and EUR 3.5 m grant), a Water Loss Reduction project in Qorak (EUR 16.2 m loan and EUR 2.24 m grant) and a sanitation project in Karak and Kofranjah (EUR 15m loan and EUR 1.45m in grants). In 2006, KfW approved another series of loans, including for a third project supporting the reduction of distribution losses in Amman in partnership with other donors through an 11m Euro loan with the objective of saving 2.5 million m³ of water per year, enough to provide 70,000 beneficiaries with water.^[77] Other projects approved around 2006 include a project for water transmission in the Northern Governorates (EUR 15 m loan) and a project for water management in the Middle Governorates (EUR 5.3 m loan). In 2009, KfW modified its cooperation with Jordan from a project approach to a program approach, bundling its new funding in a single "Water Resources Management Program" (2009–2014) that covers water loss reduction, sanitation and the use of reclaimed water from Irbid for irrigation in the Northern Jordan Valley. The new program approach is expected to allow flexible responses to changing circumstances.

Past projects financed by KfW include a water supply project in Vodiy Musa; an integrated poverty-oriented project targeted at refugees and squatters which included investments in water supply and sanitation; sewage disposal for Greater Irbid; and a trunk sewer and associated pumping stations linking up to the wastewater treatment plant As-Samra near Amman. In Wadi Musa the Euro 11.3 million project achieved, for a brief period, continuous water supply as well as a reduction in distribution losses. The project was co-financed by France and, concerning sanitation, by the US.^[21] The Euro 16.3 m poverty-oriented infrastructure project implemented by the Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO) of Jordan increased access to water and sanitation in two squatter settlements and four refugee camps. The investments in the camps were chosen in close dialogue with the residents who were organized in Community Improvement Committees, and were carried out between 1999 and 2002.^[78] The project complemented the World Bank-financed Community Infrastructure Development Project.^[79] The Euro 60.1 m Greater Irbid sewage disposal project (1994–2002) included the construction of two wastewater treatment plants and the associated sewer infrastructure connecting 202,000 residents, as well as training for operational staff. Both treatment plants operated satisfactorily four years after they had been completed. Residual sludge is being properly disposed on a landfill.^[47]

Yaponiya

Japan supports the Jordanian water sector primarily through three projects:

• Improving water supply in Zarqa viloyati (4.1bn Yen or about US$41 million grants from 2002 to 2010), including through loss reduction, reaching a total of 780,000 residents in East Zarqa (Awajan) and Russeifa (Phase I) and in Zarqa City (West Zarqa), Hashmeyeh and Sukhna (Phase II).^[80]
• Kamaytirish daromadsiz suv (NRW) through technical assistance, beginning in Amman in 1999,^[81] followed by pilot activities in parts of 10 governorates (2005–2008) and eight more pilot activities in six governorates during a "Phase 2" (2009–2011). During Phase 2 non-revenue water in the pilot areas was reduced from an average of 49% to only 22%, according to JICA.^[80]
• Energy conservation through the upgrading of the water supply network in Zarqa Governorate (about US$12 million) since 2009. The program also includes technical assistance for operation and maintenance.

Japanese aid is in the form of grants administered by the Yaponiya xalqaro hamkorlik agentligi (JICA). Japanese assistance is tied, meaning that consultants and contractors have to be from Japan. An important completed project supported by Japan was the doubling the capacity of Zai Water Treatment Plant on the carrier from Deirala in the Jordan Valley to Amman to 250 million liter/day, covering a population of 1.9 million people (US$79.1 million grant, 1998–2001).^[81]

United States of America

US assistance to the water and sanitation sector in Jordan is provided through the AQSh Xalqaro taraqqiyot agentligi (USAID) va Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC).

USAID support for infrastructure. Under the Wadi Ma’in, Zara and Mujib water treatment and conveyance project, the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) funded a water treatment plant that delivers 100,000 m³ of water per day to about 700,000 people in the Greater Amman area. The treatment plant captures water from sho'r streams which is desalinated using teskari osmoz. The remaining highly saline water (brine) is discharged to the Dead Sea.^[82] Also in Amman, in addition to the $125 million Zara Ma’in Water Supply project mentioned above, USAID partially funded the construction of the As Samra $167 million build-operate-transfer (BOT) contract for wastewater treatment of 60 million m³ yiliga. Approximately 46% of the cost was provided by USAID in the form of a grant. Furthermore, USAID is implementing a $72 million component of the multi-donor rehabilitation of Amman's potable water distribution system. Yilda Aqaba, USAID also supported the rehabilitation and expansion of a $31 million wastewater treatment plant and rehabilitation of the water distribution system.^[41]

Technical assistance and training by USAID. The USAID-funded Watershed Management project strengthened the relationship between the Ministries of Health and Water related to water standards and regulations, Quality Assurance/Quality Control program for laboratories, and new procedures that aim at reducing water treatment plant shutdowns. A Water Demand Management (WDM) Unit was established at the Ministry of Water and Irrigation with assistance from USAID, and a WDM curriculum has been inserted into Jordanian classroom textbooks from grades 1 through 11. A Master's degree program has been established at Iordaniya Fan va Texnologiya Universiteti, and journalists have been trained. Auditing and retrofitting of public and private buildings (hotels, schools, hospitals, government and commercial) indicated that 40 to 60% are now using water-saving devices. A “model” community was rehabilitated to demonstrate water and associated energy conservation. Twenty-seven grants have been awarded to poor communities to alleviate water shortages and inefficient water usage. Furthermore, training courses under a program with Washington State University have been completed for more than 800 employees from the Iordaniya vodiysi ma'muriyati, Water Authority of Jordan and Ministry of Water and Irrigation to improve and standardize accounting systems, and to improve efficiency.^[41]

Millennium Challenge Corporation. In October 2010, the Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC) and the Jordanian government signed a US$275.1m grant agreement to expand water distribution, wastewater collection and the As Samra wastewater treatment plant, all in the Zarqa governorate.^[83]

Jahon banki

1999 yildan 2007 yilgacha Jahon banki contributed with US$55 million to the Amman Water and Sanitation Management Project. One objective of the project was to lay the groundwork for sustainable private participation in the sector through a management contract. According to the World Bank, although the management was not extended, "the management operator was able to comply substantially with 12 of 15 performance targets" and, in the seven and a half years of the project, "the practice of modern utility management was introduced, and the accountability of the operator was established".^[55]

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