Pernambukoning tarixi - History of Pernambuco

Ushbu maqolada bir nechta muammolar mavjud. Iltimos yordam bering uni yaxshilang yoki ushbu masalalarni muhokama qiling munozara sahifasi. (Ushbu shablon xabarlarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling) Bu maqola dan tarjima qilingan matn bilan kengaytirilishi mumkin tegishli maqola portugal tilida. (2017 yil yanvar) Muhim tarjima ko'rsatmalari uchun [ko'rsatish] tugmasini bosing. Ko'rinish portugalcha maqolaning mashinada tarjima qilingan versiyasi. Mashina tarjimasi o'xshash DeepL yoki Google tarjima tarjimalar uchun foydali boshlang'ich nuqtadir, ammo tarjimonlar ingliz Vikipediyasiga oddiygina kompyuterga tarjima qilingan matnni nusxalash o'rniga, kerak bo'lganda xatolarni qayta ko'rib chiqishlari va tarjimaning aniqligini tasdiqlashlari kerak. Ishonchsiz yoki sifatsiz ko'rinadigan matnni tarjima qilmang. Iloji bo'lsa, matnni chet tilidagi maqolada keltirilgan ma'lumotnomalar bilan tasdiqlang. Siz kerak ta'minlash mualliflik huquqiga tegishli ichida xulosani tahrirlash tarjimangizga an tillararo bog'lanish sizning tarjimangiz manbasiga. Namunani tahrirlash xulosasi Ushbu tahrirdagi tarkib portugal tilidagi Vikipediyadagi [[: pt: História_de_Pernambuco]] maqolasidan tarjima qilingan; atribut uchun uning tarixini ko'ring. Shablonni qo'shishingiz kerak {{Tarjima qilingan | pt | História_de_Pernambuco}} uchun munozara sahifasi. Qo'shimcha ko'rsatma uchun qarang Vikipediya: tarjima. (Ushbu shablon xabarini qanday va qachon olib tashlashni bilib oling)

Pernambukoning bayrog'i 1817 yilgi inqilob Bayroq

Qismi bir qator ustida
Tarixi Braziliya
Pre-kabralin Luziya Mahalliy aholi Kuhikugu Maraxoara madaniyati
Mustamlaka Braziliya Kashfiyot Péro Vaz de Kaminhaning xati Tordesilla shartnomasi Kapitan Bandeirantlar Qullar savdosi Frantsiya Antarktika Frantsiya Equinoxiale Quilombo dos Palmares Gollandiya Braziliyasi Rio-de-Janeyro jangi Iezuitlarning kamayishi Emboabalar urushi Maskat urushi Guaraní urushi Oltin shoshqaloqlik Inconfidência Mineira
Portugaliya bilan Birlashgan Qirollik Portugaliya sudining Braziliyaga o'tkazilishi Pernambukadagi qo'zg'olon Frantsiya Gvianasini bosib olish Banda Sharqini zabt etish
Mustaqillik Mustaqillik deklaratsiyasi Mustaqillik urushi
Braziliya imperiyasi Dom Pedro I 1824 yil konstitutsiyasi va 1834 yilgi qo'shimcha qonun Azob kechasi Ekvator Konfederatsiyasi Sisplatin urushi Irlandiya va Germaniya yollanma askarlari qo'zg'oloni Regency Aprel qo'zg'oloni Malé qo'zg'oloni Kabanagem Ragamuffin urushi Balaiada Dom Pedro II 1842 yildagi liberal qo'zg'olonlar Praeyra qo'zg'oloni Eusébio de Queiros qonuni Platin urushi Urugvay urushi Paragvay urushi Grande Seca Diniy savol Muckers qo'zg'oloni Qullikning bekor qilinishi
Eski respublika Respublikaning e'lon qilinishi Café com leite policy Coronelismo Amazon kauchuk bum Federalist Riograndense inqilobi Revolta da Armada Kanudolar urushi Vaksinalar qo'zg'oloni Akrning qo'shilishi Contestado urushi Birinchi jahon urushi Kirpiklar qo'zg'oloni Tenente isyonlari Copacabana Fort qo'zg'olonining 18-qismi Coluna Prestes
Vargas davri 1930 yilgi inqilob Konstitutsionist inqilob Integralizm Estado Novo Ikkinchi jahon urushi
Respublika 46 Braziliya qurilishi Plano Trienal
Harbiy boshqaruv 1964 yil Braziliya davlat to'ntarishi AI-5 Araguaiya partizan urushi Yuz minglik mart Braziliya mo''jizasi Diretas Já
Yangi respublika Yo'qotilgan o'n yil Braziliya Ta'sis yig'ilishi Plano Collor Fernando Kollorga nisbatan impichment 1993 yil konstitutsiyaviy referendum Plano Real 2005 yil qurol va o'q-dorilar bo'yicha referendum Mensalao va Petrolão janjallar Avtomobil yuvish tergov Dilma Russeffning impichmenti Bolsonaro saylovi Koronavirus pandemiyasi
Braziliyadagi yillar Braziliyadagi yillar
Xronologiya Braziliya tarixining xronologiyasi
Braziliya portali

Tarixi Pernambuko, mamlakatning shimoli-sharqiy mintaqasida joylashgan Braziliya shtati, portugallar tomonidan kashf qilinishidan oldin paydo bo'lgan va uning aholisi Kate va Tabajara mahalliy xalqlar. Ism turli davrlarda turli xil shaxslarni ifodalagan: kapitan, viloyat, mustaqil respublika (qisqacha) va bugungi kunda davlat.

Ism

So'nggi tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, bu nom Pernambuko "Boka de Fernao" (Fernoning og'zi) dan kelib chiqadi.^[1] Hozir nomi ma'lum bo'lgan joy Santa-Kruz kanali, qaerda Fernão de Noronha Evropada savdo qilish uchun kemalarini Braziliya yog'ochlari bilan to'ldirdi.^[2] Ismni Tupi "Pernãobuka" deb nomlangan va frantsuz yozuvchilari tomonidan "Fernambouc" deb yozilgan; ikki talaffuz bugungi kunda eng keng tarqalgan ismga birlashtirilgan.

Ilgari, Pernambuko Tupi so'zlarining buzilishi deb ishonilgan para-nã (keng daryo) va 'Mbuka' (ichi bo'sh yoki singan), qirg'oq riflariga ishora qiladi; unda daraxt joylashgan joyni anglatgan Paubrasilia (Caesalpinia echinata) kashf qilindi, endi shunday nomlanadi Pernambuko daraxti yoki brazilwood. Yorqin qizil bo'yoq manbai bo'lgan daraxtlar Braziliyaning Atlantika sohilida mo'l-ko'l o'sgan va mustamlakadan oldingi va mustamlakachilik davrlarining bosh savdo mollari bo'lgan.

Tarix va antik davr

Braziliyaning shimoli-sharqida mamlakatning qadimiy arxeologik yodgorliklari mavjud bo'lib, ular miloddan avvalgi 40 ming yildan ko'proq vaqtga to'g'ri keladi. Bugungi kunda Pernambukoga mos keladigan mintaqada Cha do Kaboklo, Bom Jardim, Furna do Estragon va Brexo da Madre de Deus hududlarida miloddan avvalgi 9000 yilgacha bo'lgan odam ishg'olining qoldiqlari aniqlangan. Ushbu so'nggi mintaqada muhim nekropol topildi, ulardan 83 skelet topildi.^[3][4]

Pernambukoda yashovchi mahalliy guruhlar orasida Itaparika taxminan miloddan avvalgi 4000 yilgacha bo'lgan tosh asboblar uchun mas'uldir va taxminan nol yilgacha bo'lgan g'or rasmlari Kariris xalqiga tegishli. Portugal mustamlakasi davrida Tabajaralar, Tupinambalar va Ketslar bu hududda yashagan.^[5] Shtatning ayrim qismlarida hanuzgacha mahalliy guruhlarni, masalan, Pankararu va Atikum.^[3]

Portugaliyalik kelish va prekolonial

Qirol Portugaliyalik Jon III

Vaqtida Braziliyaning kashf etilishi, zamonaviy Pernambuko shtatidagi Recife yaqinidagi hudud asosan aholi tomonidan yashagan Tabajara Hindular.^[6][7] Tabajara Tupi-Guarani lingvistik guruhining a'zolari edi. Portugaliyaliklar tupi-guarani tilida so'zlashuvchilar bilan boshqa tillarda so'zlashuvchilarga qaraganda ancha muvaffaqiyatli muomalada bo'lishgan.^[8]

Braziliyaning tub aholisi madaniyati tarkibiga portugaliyaliklar va boshqa yevropaliklar nomaqbul deb topgan jihatlar kiritilgan. Ushbu xalqlarning aksariyati yuvinishdi, aksariyati yalang'ochlashdi va ularning ko'plari odamxo'rlar edi.^[9] Ushbu noqulay madaniy farqlardan farqli o'laroq, Tupi-Guarani ma'ruzachilari ularni madaniy xususiyatga ega bo'lib, ularni portugallar uchun qadrli qilishgan. Umuman olganda ham ovchilarni yig'uvchilar, Tupi tilida so'zlashadigan aborigenlar, shu jumladan Tabajara dehqonchilik bilan shug'ullangan.^[8]

Ushbu xususiyat tupi tilida so'zlashuvchilar va portugaliyaliklarning sobiq mustamlakachilik davrida ham, Braziludni ekspluatatsiya qilish asosiy iqtisodiy faoliyat bo'lgan davrda ham, keyinchalik mustamlaka boshlanganda ham hamkorlikning kaliti bo'lgan. Braziliyaning aksariyat qismida, hozirgi zamongacha, coivara (qirg'in va kuyish) qishloq xo'jaligi keng tarqalgan edi. Mahalliy aholi orasida erkaklar yangi erlarni tozalash va ayollar ekinlarni ekish, etishtirish va yig'ish bo'yicha og'ir ishlarni qildilar.^{[iqtibos kerak ]} Ushbu xalqlar toshdan yasalgan asbob-uskunalardan voz kechishga shoshilishdi, bu esa daraxtlarni tozalashni ancha osonlashtirdi. Balta va boshqa metall asbob-uskunalar uchun Brazilwood kema yuklarini sotish juda foydali edi, chunki metall asboblar erni tozalashda ularning mehnatini ancha engillashtirardi.^[10]

Brazilwoodni ekspluatatsiya qilishga o'tsak, zamonaviy Pernambukoning Orollarni o'z ichiga olishi tasodifdir. Fernando de Noronxa, orollar berilgandan buyon materik Pernambukoning tarixidan oldin Fernão de Loronha Qirol Manoel tomonidan 1502 yilda. Bundan tashqari, aynan Ferno-de-Loronha qirol Manoelga Braziludni ekspluatatsiya qilish uchun eksklyuziv litsenziya bergan.^[11] Portugaliyaliklar Braziludni tezda ekspluatatsiya qilishni boshlaganlarida, ular asosan uni Shimoliy Evropaga jo'natdilar. Braziluddan olingan qizil bo'yoq Frantsiyada ayniqsa mashhur bo'lib ketdi va ko'p o'tmay boshqa millatlarning kemalari, ayniqsa frantsuz kemalari portugallar bilan raqobatlasha boshladilar.^[12] Tez orada Portugaliya qiroli o'z suveren hududining ushbu qonunbuzarliklariga javob qaytardi. 1516 yilda, Kristovão Jak Pernambuko qirg'og'ini boshqa xalqlarning kemalariga qarshi patrul qilishda ayblangan.

The feitoriya (so'zma-so'z "fabrika", portugal savdo punkti) Kristovo Jakning kirish qismida o'rnatilgan Santa-Kruz kanali, Itamaraka, mahalliy aholi bilan aloqalarni o'rnatish, ichki boyliklar haqida ma'lumot qidirish va Braziliya qirg'og'idagi boshqa xalqlarning tajovuzlarini qaytarish uchun mo'ljallangan. Frantsuzlar ostida Bertran d'Ornesan yana 1531 yilda Pernambukoda frantsuz savdo postini tashkil etishga urindi.^[13] Portugaliyaliklar bunga javoban Pero Lopes de Sousa boshchiligidagi armiyani yuborib, Frantsiya qal'asini yoqib yuborishdi va ushbu hududda portugal nazoratini tikladilar.^[14] Frantsiyani Pernabukoning Itamarica bilan shimoliy chegarasidan chiqarib yuborishdagi ushbu muvaffaqiyatdan ko'p o'tmay, portugallar Braziliyada joylashishni boshladilar. 1534 yildan boshlab Portugaliya qiroli Jon III Braziliyani chet elliklardan xalos qilish uchun yaxshiroq himoya qilish uchun merosxo'r kapitanlarni berdi.^[15]

Mustamlaka davri: Pernambukoning kapitani

1630 yilda Portugaliyaning o'sha paytdagi Braziliyaning eng boy va eng muvaffaqiyatli mustamlakasi bo'lgan Pernambukoni mustamlaka qilishning dastlabki davri tugashida gollandlar oltmish etti kema, 7000 kishi va 1170 qurol bilan hujum qilishdi.^[16] Ular o'rnatgan kuchning kattaligi atigi 95 yillik mustamlakadan so'ng Pernambuko kapitanining boyligi va muvaffaqiyatining guvohidir.

Pernambuko kapitanligi poydevori

Ushbu davrda Pernambukoning muvaffaqiyati uchun faqat biron bir kishi javobgar bo'lmasa-da, kreditning katta qismi tegishli Duarte Koelo Pereyra, birinchi Donatario (Lord Proprietor). Duarte Koelo kirib keldi Yangi Lusitaniya (yoki "Yangi Lusitaniya ") 1535 yilda uning rafiqasi Dona Brites de Albukerke, uning ukasi Jeronimo de Albukerke va uning kapitanligini topish uchun ko'chmanchilar va mollarning kichik armiyasi bilan birga.^[17] Tarixchilarda Duarte Koeloning Brasilning barcha boshlang'ich kapitanlari orasida eng muvaffaqiyatli bo'lganini boshqarishi bilan bog'liq bir nechta hujjatlari mavjud bo'lishiga qaramay, birinchi bo'lib aniq donatarioning dastlabki harakatlar Pernambukoni muvaffaqiyatga erishish yo'liga qo'ydi. Duarte Kehlo frantsuz ittifoqchilariga qarshi harbiy harakatlarni boshqargan Kate Hindlar va 1537 yilda mag'lubiyatga uchraganlaridan so'ng, sobiq Marin hind qishlog'i o'rnida aholi punkti tashkil etishdi, bundan buyon Olinda, shuningdek, boshqa qishloq Igarassu.

Uning rahbarligi natijasida, shakar 1570 yilga kelib, Pernambukoning eng foydali eksporti sifatida Brazilwood bilan raqib bo'ladi. Shuningdek, u paxta etishtirishni rag'batlantirdi. Shakar va paxta etishtirish tufayli Pernambuko Braziliyada eng muvaffaqiyatli sardor edi. Birinchisi, boshqa muammolar qatorida donatário chegara qonunchiligi duch keldi, qisman yuborish toj siyosati tufayli degredados chet elda ularni qamash o'rniga. Ko'p bo'lsa ham degredados juda kichik huquqbuzarliklar uchun sudlangan va surgun qilingan, Duarte Koelho deb atagan qotillar, qaroqchilar, o'g'rilar va firibgarlar etarli edi. degredados zaharlanib, qirolga bu mahkumlarni tuzatishni kutish mumkin emasligi haqida shikoyat qildi.^[17]

Yigirma yil ichida Pernambuko kapitanligi gullab-yashnayotgan paytda, Braziliyaning boshqa kapitanlari ko'p bo'lmagan (bundan mustasno) San-Visente ).

Qirol butun Braziliya uchun gubernator zarur deb qaror qildi. 1549 yilda, Tome de Sousa ning muvaffaqiyatsiz kapitaniga jo'natildi Baia Todos os Santos.^[18]

Duarte Koeloning muvaffaqiyatini e'tirof etib, yangi gubernatorga Pernambukodan tashqari qolgan barcha sardorlarni ziyorat qilish topshirildi. Iezuitlar va Braziliyaning yangi hukumatining boshqa mansabdorlari xuddi shunday cheklanmagan. 1551 yilda Iezuitlar Manuel da Nobrega va Antonio Piresning tashrifi natijasida tojga va ularning Coimbra shahridagi Iezuitlar shtab-kvartirasiga bir nechta xat qaytarildi. Ota-onalar fuqarolik va ayniqsa diniy qonunlar buzilganligi sababli, ular kuzatilganidek, kelishuvni tasvirlab berishdi. Ota Nobrega azaldan paydo bo'lgan va chuqur ildiz otgan gunohlardan har xil shikoyat qildi.

U portugaliyalik erkaklarga o'zlarini erkin berib yuborgan mahalliy ayollar bilan olib borilgan keng jinsiy litsenziya haqida xabar berdi. Shuningdek, u ko'pchilikni ta'kidladi mestiço koloniyada imon va ta'limsiz ta'lim olgan bolalar. Norvega Pernambukodagi ruhoniylarni ham, ular oddiy odamlardan ko'ra yaxshiroq hayot kechirmayotganliklarini izohladi. Pernambukoda jizvitlar mahalliy jamoalarda xushxabarni va'z qildilar va portugallar orasida ham nasroniylik odoblarini tiklash uchun harakat qildilar. Shuningdek, ular portugaliyaliklar va qullar uchun rosaryaning ikkita birodarligini o'rnatdilar. Biroq, ularning yashashlari qisqa edi, Ota Nobrega tezda Bahiyaga qaytib keldi va 1554 yilda ota Pires ketganidan so'ng, jezvitlar 1561 yilgacha Pernambukoga qaytib kelmadilar.^[17]

1553 yilda Duarte Koelho Portugaliyaga qaytib keldi va Pernambuko boshqaruvini Dona Brites de Albukerke va uning ukasi Jeronimo de Albukerk bilan qoldirdi. U Portugaliyada vafot etganida, uning merosxo'ri Duarte Koelyo de Albukerke voyaga etmagan va Dona Brites o'g'lining ozchilik davrida va u Portugaliyada o'qishni tugatish uchun boshqargan. Duarte Koelo frantsuzlarga va ularga qarshi kurash olib borgan edi Kate uning hayoti davomida ittifoqchilari, uning yo'qligi tez orada Keyt xalqi bilan ko'proq kurash olib bordi. A qiziga uylangan Jeronimo de Albukerke Tabajara boshliq va kamida 24 farzand otasi, ham tinchlik, ham urushda samarali rahbar bo'lgan. Birinchisi ketganidan ko'p o'tmay donatário Portugaliya uchun yana urush boshlandi. 1555 yilga kelib, Jeronimo de Albukerke Kets janubini haydab, yo'l ochdi varzea (suv toshqini tekisligi) Capibaribe daryosi atrofida joylashish va shakar etishtirish uchun. Bu shakar etishtirish uchun eng samarali maydonlardan biri bo'lishi mumkin. 1560 yilda merosxo'r qaytib kelgandan so'ng, ikkinchisi bo'lgan mahalliy qabilalar bilan yana urush boshlandi donatário, Duarte Koelyo de Albukerke va uning ukasi Xorxe de Albukerke Koelyo ishtirok etishdi.^[19]

Duarte Koelo umrining aksariyat qismida o'z sardorligini rivojlantirishda erkin qo'ldan foydalangan. Vafotidan keyin XVII asrning boshigacha bo'lgan davrda Pernambuko birinchi tomonidan belgilangan yo'lda rivojlanishda davom etdi. donatário muvaffaqiyat bilan etishtirishda va Duarte Koelyoning merosxo'rlarining ko'rsatmalarida va Baia general-gubernatorlari tomonidan kapitanlikka ozgina aralashishda.^[17][20] Sabablari bir nechta edi: Birinchidan, tojning donatoriyalarga ilgari berilgan imtiyozlarni kamaytirish va Bahiyadagi qirol hukumatini kuchaytirish niyatida bo'lishiga qaramay, tojning niyatlari ko'pincha Pernambukoda amalga oshirilmadi. Portugaliya toji birinchi marta 1557 yilda Joao III ning o'limini boshdan kechirdi. O'sha paytda uning nabirasi va merosxo'ri Sebastyan uch yoshda edi. 1578 yilda Sebastyan Marokashga noto'g'riligini bostirib kirdi. U Alkaser Kibirda bo'lib o'tgan jangda mag'lubiyatga uchradi.^[21] Uning amakisi, kardinal Enrike ikki yil hukmronlik qildi va merosxo'rsiz vafot etdi.^[22]

1580 yilda Ispaniyalik Filipp II tojni Portugaliyalik Filipp I sifatida qabul qildi. Ikkinchidan, Dona Brites va uning ukasi Jeronimo de Albukerke umrlari davomida kapitanni boshqarishda davom etishgan bo'lsa, Duarte Koeloning o'g'illari va merosxo'rlari, birinchi navbatda, Portugaliyada ta'lim olish uchun, keyinroq tojda xizmat qilish uchun, shu jumladan jangda qatnashish uchun ko'pincha yo'q edilar. Alkaser Kibirdan, ikkalasi ham qo'lga olingan, keyinchalik fido qilingan, keyin esa ikkinchisi donatário, Duarte Koelho de Albukerke vafot etdi. Uning ukasi Xorxe de Albukerke Koelho, uchinchisi donatário hech qachon Pernambukoga qaytib kelmagan va 1602 yilda vafot etgan.^[20]

Uchinchidan, Braziliyada qirol gubernatorlari, hozirda Pernambukoga tashrif buyurish bo'yicha ko'rsatmalarga ega bo'lishlariga qaramay, XVII asr boshlariga qadar hech qachon tashrif buyurmaganlar. Mem de Sá Rio-de-Janeyroda frantsuzlarning bosqini bilan ishg'ol qilingan va boshqa qirol gubernatorlarining aksariyati mahalliy xalqlar bilan urushlar va oltin, kumush va zumradni qidirish bilan shug'ullangan. General-gubernatorlar tomonidan tashrif buyurilmaganligi e'tiborga loyiqdir. Pireniya monarxlari bilan odatdagidek, qirol xazinasi qirol amaldorlari uchun qoniqarli tovon to'lash uchun etarli emas edi va barcha mansabdor shaxslar o'z maoshlarini ish haqi bilan to'lashlari va ish davomida ishbilarmonlik imkoniyatlarini topishlari kerak edi. Gubernator va uning atrofidagilar yo'q bo'lganda, Pernambukoning kolonistlari mavjud imkoniyatlar uchun raqobatlashadigan yuqori lavozimli amaldorlarning soni kamroq bo'lar edi.^[20]

Pernambukodagi jezuitlar va boshqa diniy buyurtmalar

1561 yilda Iezuitlar Pernambukoga qaytib keldi. Braziliyadagi jizvitlar tarixi boshqa ko'plab diniy buyruqlarga qaraganda ancha yaxshi ma'lum. Biroq, jezvitlar tomonidan ko'chmanchilar, ham oddiy odamlar, ham ruhoniylar to'g'risida ko'plab shikoyatlarga qaramay, Pernambukoda Gollandiyalik davrgacha va hatto undan oldin ham bir nechta diniy muassasalar mavjud edi. Gollandiyadan oldingi davrda mahalliy uchinchi buyurtmalar va shunga o'xshash tashkilotlar, masalan, dafn marosimlari guruhlari tashkil etilgan. Bundan tashqari, eng taniqli Portugaliyalik xayriya tashkiloti Miserikordia ning boshida ham tashkil etilgan XVI asr. Gollandiyaliklar kelishidan ancha oldin, Frantsiskanlar Olinda va boshqa to'rtta jamoalarda tashkil etilgan friariyalar Karmelitlar Olinda ham friari bor edi va Benediktinlar Olinda monastiri, shuningdek qishloqdagi plantatsiya va bularning barchasi cherkovlardagi dunyoviy ruhoniylarga qo'shimcha edi.^[23]

Diniy buyruqlar, ayniqsa, iezuitlar, mahalliy aholini madaniyatini oshirish va xristianlashtirish uchun 'Aldeia' (qishloqlar) ga to'plashdi. Iezuitlar, xususan, hindlarning himoyachisi va himoyachisiga aylanishdi. Ehtimol, yezuitlar Pernambukoda 1554 yildan 1561 yilgacha bo'lmaganligi sababli, Pernambukodagi mahalliy qabilalarni samarali qirg'in qilish ko'proq harbiy kampaniyalar tufayli sodir bo'lgan, masalan, donor oilasi boshchiligidagi,^[24] diniy buyruqlarni yig'ish va akkulturatsiya qilish harakatlariga qaraganda, masalan, Bahiyada to'plangan o'n minglab mahalliy aholini o'ldirgan epidemiyalarga duchor bo'lganlar. aldeiyalar 1552 yilda 1561 yilgacha,^[25] Bundan tashqari, aholini yo'q qilish Pernambukodan bo'lgan mahalliy aholining ko'chib o'tishi, masalan, 60,000 Tupinamba Pernambukodan ichki qismga o'tib, u erdan u erga Maranxao (bu erda keyingi asrda ularning avlodlari yana Portugal mustamlakasiga duch kelishadi.)^[26] 1584 yilga kelib, bironta qabila qishlog'isiz 30 millik hududlar borligi haqida xabarlar bor edi va bir vaqtlar mahalliy xalqlar ko'p yashagan va ularning mehnatiga bog'liq bo'lgan Pernambuko ishchi kuchi etishmasligidan aziyat chekdi.^[27]

Shakar va qullik

Pernambukoning tarixini shakar sanoatining rivojlanishidan ajratib bo'lmaydi. Bozorning o'zgarishi sababli, shakar kam ustun bo'lgan davrda katta farovonlik va davrlar bo'lgan. Shunga qaramay, XVI asrdan beri shakar har doim Pernambuka iqtisodiyotining muhim qismidir. Pernambukoga kelganidan besh yildan ko'proq vaqt o'tgach, Duarte Koelo Portugaliyaga tashrif buyurdi va sarmoya kiritishni qo'llab-quvvatladi ingenhoslar (shakar zavodlari), deb yozgan Qirol qamish dalalari ekilgan va bitta katta engenho tugash arafasida edi.^[28] Bir necha yil o'tgach, 1550 yilda beshta "Engenhos" ishlatilgan va 1576 yilga kelib Pero de Magalhaes Gandavo Pernambukoning 1000 ga yaqin (portugal) aholisi va yigirma uchtasi borligini xabar qildi. ingenhoslar (uchta yoki to'rttasi hali tugallanmagan). Yaxshi yilning dastlabki kunida Pernambuko 50 mingdan ortiq mahsulot ishlab chiqardi arrobalar yoki 800 tonna (1 arroba = 32 funt ~ 14,75 kg) shakar. Gollandiyaliklar bostirib kirgunga qadar ushbu ishlab chiqarish ko'payib borar edi.

Shakarni etishtirish va qayta ishlash katta kapital qo'yilmalarni ham, og'ir mehnatni ham talab qildi. Duarte Koeloning Portugaliyaga qaytishi bilan bir qatorda birinchi investorlarini qidirib topdi engenyo, biz bu investitsiya kapitali birinchi bir necha bor qaerdan yoki kimdan kelganligini umuman bilamiz ingenhoslar: ehtimol Lissabon savdogarlari. Biz bilamizki, qullar ishchi kuchini ta'minlagan. Mahalliy xalqlarning erkin va qul mehnati ishlatilgan bo'lsa-da, ulardan foydalanish nafaqat populyatsiyalarning kamayishi, balki madaniyatning asosiy atributlari bilan ham cheklangan. Ikki madaniy omil quyidagilar edi: Birinchidan, na Tabajaralar na Ketslar xalqlar boylik yig'uvchilar edi. Stuart Shvarts aytganidek: "Bir marta odam ovqatlanishiga va bir nechta yangi asbob-uskuna va qurollarga to'ysa, nega u ko'proq narsani xohlashi yoki ishlashi kerak?"^[29] Ikkinchidan, hatto Tupi kabi so'zlashuvchi xalqlar Tabajara, allaqachon qishloq xo'jaligi bilan shug'ullangan, ekinlarni etishtirish ayollar ishi edi. Shunday qilib, 1542 yildayoq Duarte Koeloning afrikalik qullarni olib kirishga ruxsat olish uchun tojga qilgan iltimosini takrorlab topishi ajablanarli emas. Afrikaliklar mahalliy xalqlardan farqli o'laroq, g'alati yangi mamlakatda, oilasi yoki atrof-muhit bilan tanish bo'lmagan holda bo'lishadi, shuning uchun yangi kelgan afrikalik qullarning qochadigan joyi yo'q edi va ularni yashiradigan hech kim yo'q edi. 1552 yilda bitta xabarda Pernambukoda mingdan ortiq afrikalik qullar borligi aytilgan.^[30] 1585 yildan boshlab Braziliyadagi afrikalik qullarning soni to'g'risidagi hisobotda bir jezuit yozgan edi: "... 14000 kishi edi, ularning aksariyati Pernambukoda edi".^[31] Gollandiyaliklar istilosigacha bu davrda shakar ishlab chiqarish yildan-yilga o'zgarib turar edi, chunki 1560 va 1616 yillardagi epidemiyalar va 1580 va 1584 yillardagi qurg'oqchilik kabi tabiiy hodisalar natijasida, umuman olganda ingenhoslar, shakarni tozalash miqdori va afrikalik qullar soni tobora ko'payib bordi (jadvalga qarang).

Xapsburglar boshqaruvidagi portugaliyalik Pernambuko

1580 yil 1630 yil Gollandiyaliklar Pernambukoga bostirib kirganda, "Pernambukoning oltin davri.^[32] Ushbu oltin davr Ispaniya xapsburglari tomonidan Portugaliya tojini egallashga to'g'ri keldi (1580 yildan 1640 yilgacha).

Ispaniya imperiyasi fon sifatida

Ispaniyaning Filipp II davrida (Portugaliyada, Filipp I) Xapsburglar butun Evropa va Evropa mustamlakalarini butun dunyo bo'ylab boshqargan. Filipp II barcha Ispaniyani boshqargan, u Flandriya, Artoi va Franche-Konte munozarali Gollandiya va Zelandiya hukmdori bo'lgan. U shoh edi Neapol va Sitsiliya va Sardiniya va Milan ustidan o'z nazorati ostida, Avstriyadagi qarindoshlari bilan doimiy aloqada bo'lib turdi, shuning uchun Xapsburglar deyarli Frantsiyani o'rab olishdi. U Portugaliyaning tojini egallaganida, Afrikadagi Oran, Seuta, Tanjer, Kanareykalar kabi domenlari Madeyra, Azor orollari, Kabo-Verde, shuningdek, Afrika va Uzoq Sharqdagi portugaliyalik postlarni o'z ichiga olgan. Pernambuko, butun Braziliya singari va boshqa Ispaniya qirollik domenlari ham Xapsburg imperiyasiga qo'shilish imtiyozlaridan va jazolaridan foydalanganlar.^[33] XVI asr oxirida Pernambuko Filipp II (Ispaniya) hukmronligidan foyda ko'rdi. XVII asrda Pernambuko xuddi shu imperiyaga tegishli jazolarni boshdan kechirganligi sababli, xususan 1630 yilda Gollandiyaliklarning bosqini bilan.

Kapitanning ichki ishlari

XVI asrning oxirida, portugallar Braziliyada o'z turar-joylarini kengaytirishni davom ettirdilar. Holbuki Baia, general-gubernatorlar homiyligi ostida Portugaliyaning Braziliyani janubga qarab zamonaviy Braziliyaning yuragiga aylanadigan qismiga juda muvaffaqiyatli kengayishi uchun asos bo'lgan, Pernambuko Portugaliyaning ushbu hududlarga biroz kamroq muvaffaqiyatli kengayishi uchun asos bo'lgan. shimol. Pernambukoning shimolidagi hududlarni joylashtirishga qaratilgan ushbu urinishlar Pernambuko tarixi uchun bir necha sabablarga ko'ra muhimdir. Birinchidan, Potiguar odamlar Pernambukoning shimoliy qirg'og'ining katta qismida yashagan va shu bilan birga Potiguar eng yaqin Pernambuko tez-tez portugallar bilan tinch savdo qilishadi, ko'pincha Potiguar frantsuzlar bilan ittifoqdosh bo'lib, ular bir necha bor Pernambukoning shimoliy qirg'og'ida frantsuz postlarini yoki aholi punktlarini o'rnatishga harakat qildilar. Ushbu ittifoq Pernambuko uchun doimiy xavf tug'dirdi. Martim Leytano, Manuel de Maskarenxas Xomem va Jeronimo de Albukerk Maranxa kabi ko'plab Pernambukaliklar frantsuzlar va Potiguarga qarshi ekspeditsiyalarda qatnashishgan va bu ekspeditsiyalar kamida 1570 yillarning boshlarida boshlangan.^[34] Biroq, frantsuzlar tahdididan tashqari va Potiguar ittifoqi, eng muhimi, bu ekspeditsiyalarning jihozlanganligi va Pernambukodagi savdogarlar orqali ta'minlanganligi edi. XVII asrning boshlarida general-gubernatorlarning kengaytirilgan tashriflarini (ba'zan ko'proq yashash joylari) Portugaliyaning Braziliyani mustamlaka qilishini kengaytirish nuqtai nazaridan tushunish mumkin. 1602-1619 yillarda to'rtta general-gubernatorlar sakkiz yil o'zlarining poytaxti Bahiya o'rniga Pernambukoda bo'lib, nomzod sifatida kapitanlikni tekshirdilar va Shimoliy qirg'oqqa ekspeditsiyalarni yo'naltirdilar va shu bilan birga, ushbu shimoliy ekspeditsiyalarni jihozlash va etkazib berish bilan shug'ullandilar. . To'rtinchining yoshligiga shubha yo'q donatário, Duarte de Albuquerque Coelho, yo'q Pernambuko va 1602 yilda o'n yoshida meros qilib olgan, bu general-gubernatorlar huzurida va general-gubernatorlar va uning atrofidagilarning Pernambukoda foyda olish qobiliyatining omili edi. To'rtinchidan oldin 1620 yil bo'ladi donatário akasini yuborishga ruxsat beriladi, Matias de Albukerke uning sardori ustidan to'g'ridan-to'g'ri oilaviy nazoratni amalga oshirish uchun uning vakili sifatida. General-gubernator Dom Luis de Sousa, Conde do Prado va uning tayinlovchilari va Matias de Albukerke o'rtasida bir nechta kelishmovchiliklar bo'lgan. Matias birodariga berilgan imtiyozlarning katta qismini tiklashda muvaffaqiyat qozonganligini uning ketayotgan general-gubernator Dom Luis de Sousaga general-gubernator ketayotganda uning Lissabonga jo'nab ketgan kemasi Resifeni chaqirganida to'xtashga ruxsat berishdan bosh tortganida ko'rish mumkin. Braziliya. Unvonli zodagonlar vakiliga nisbatan bu xo'rlik jiddiy jazoga olib kelmagani, keyingi general-gubernator Diogo de Mendonça Furtado Bahiyada Gollandiyaliklar tomonidan qo'lga olinganda, Matias de Albukerke voris va gubernator etib tayinlangani bilan tasdiqlangan. - Braziliya generali.^[35]

Gollandiyalik kashfiyot va kashfiyotlar davrida Pernambuko va Shimoliy-Sharqiy Braziliya

Portugaliya Ispaniyaning Xapsburg qirollari qo'liga o'tganida, gollandlar o'n ikki yil davomida Ispaniya tojiga qarshi qo'zg'olonda edilar. Gollandlar birinchi bo'lib 1624 yilda Bahiyada cheklangan muvaffaqiyat bilan Braziliyani nishonga oldilar, so'ngra 1630 yildan boshlab Pernambukoda va Braziliyaning shimoliy sohillarida. Ular nihoyat 1654 yilda haydab chiqarildi.

Pernambukoning bosqini

Gollandiya Braziliya bayrog'i

Gollandiyaning G'arbiy Hindiston kompaniyasi Pernambukoning mudofaasi to'g'risida ham, dengizda kemalarni egallab olish paytida ham, 1624 yilda Bahiyani bosib olish paytida ham katta ma'lumot to'plagan edi. Natijada, flot qo'mondoni Xendrik Korneliszoon Loncq va quruqlikdagi polkovnik Jonckheer Didrix van Vaerdenburg Pernambukoning himoyasining zaif tomonlari haqida yaxshi ma'lumotga ega edi. Gollandiyaliklar hujumni tayyorlashni ancha kechiktirgani sababli, Ispaniya tojiga bu haqda oldindan xabar berildi. Qirol tahdidni bartaraf etish uchun Matias de Albukerkani yubordi. U 3 karavel, bir nechta qo'shin va ba'zi o'q-dorilar bilan jo'natildi. 1629 yil oktyabr oyida Pernambukoga kelib, u mahalliy mudofaalar asosan buzib tashlanganligini va mavjud mudofaa kuchlari atigi 200 askar va 650 militsionerdan iborat ekanligini aniqladi. Pernambuko oltmish etti kema, 7000 kishi va 1170 qurol bilan Gollandiyaning hujumiga duch keladi. 1630 yil fevralda Flamand floti Pernambukoni ko'rdi va qirg'oqqa tushdi Pau Amarelo. Bosqinchi qo'shinlar ketishdi Recife qishlog'iga Bu allaqachon qal'a qurganligi sababli katta qarshilik ko'rsatishi mumkin.

Dastlabki gollandiyaliklar hujumi muvaffaqiyatli bo'lib o'tdi, shunchaki himoyachilar yoqib yuborgan yuk tashish va shakar omborlarini yo'q qilib, gollandlarni bu o'ljadan mahrum qilishdi. Himoyachilar partizan urushiga murojaat qilishdi va bu juda muvaffaqiyatli bo'ldi. Gollandiyaliklar ham, portugallar ham qarama-qarshi kuchlar singari dushman kabi kasallik va qisqa ratsion bilan uzoq vaqt kurash olib borishdi. Rölyef armadasini o'rnatishga muvaffaqiyatsiz urinish bo'ldi. Gollandiyaliklar bir necha yillar davomida asta-sekin ustunlikka ega bo'lishlari bilan urush g'azablanishga aylandi, ammo Gollandiyaning Went India kompaniyasiga juda oz miqdordagi foyda keltirdi.^[36]

Ning boshqaruvi Yoxan Maurits

"Shakar sanoati bilan bog'liq bo'lgan eng ajoyib odam"^[37]

Yoxan Mauritsning Yangi Gollandiyadagi jangovar yutuqlari

Yoxan Maurits portugaliyalik qarshilikka qarshi kampaniyani Resifining janubidagi Porto Kalvoga hujum bilan boshladi. Portugaliyalik qo'mondon Jovanni Baguoli Porto-Kalvoda belgilangan jangda gollandlar bilan uchrashishni tanladi va mag'lubiyatga uchradi. O'z kuchlarini birlashtirgandan so'ng va Povasao Fortini egallab olgach, Mavritsiya qarshilik kuchlarini San-Frantsisko daryosiga ta'qib qildi va ularni kesib o'tmasdan ularni jalb qilolmay, mahalliy aholi bilan kelishuvga erishishga muvaffaq bo'ldi. Potiguar odamlar portugallarning Pernambukoga qaytishini oldini olish uchun.^[38]

Ko'rinishidan, Pernambukoni ko'p qarshiliklardan xalos qilib, gubernator ishlayotgan koloniyani buyurtma qilish uchun o'girildi. Mavritslar o'z davri va yoshiga nisbatan juda bag'rikenglik ko'rsatsa-da (ibodat qilishning katta erkinligini ta'minlash, qolgan mahalliy xalqlar bilan yaxshi munosabatlarni o'rnatish va qo'llab-quvvatlash, hattoki Gollandiyaga qochib ketgan afrikalik qullarni qaytarishdan bosh tortish) asrning haqiqati va haqiqati shakar iqtisodiyoti yirik yer egaligi, qimmatbaho texnika va qullikka asoslangan edi. 1637 yilda Yoxan Maurits San-Xorxega qarshi polkovnik Xans Koen boshchiligidagi kuchni yubordi. Shunday qilib Gollandiyalik Braziliya afrikalik qullar zaxirasini tiklay oldi, bu Pernambukoda shakar ishlab chiqarishni ko'paytirishning kaliti.^[38]

San-Frantsisko daryosi bo'ylab partizan hujumlari (Baguoli yuborgan) va Serjipga qarshi shimolga, Searani bosib olish uchun Tapuya qabilalarining taklifiga binoan, janubga Sergipe-ga qarshi olib borilgan kampaniyadan so'ng, Yoxan Maurits Bahiyaga hujum qilishga undadi. Ushbu muvaffaqiyatsiz kampaniya 1638 yilda amalga oshirilgan. Ba'zi dastlabki yutuqlarga qaramay, gollandlar o'zlarining kuchlari himoyachidan ustun bo'lganligini va oxir-oqibat Maurits orqaga chekinishini aniqladilar.^[38] Yoxan Maurits Bahiyani "qo'lqopsiz olinmaydigan mushuk" deb ta'rifladi.^[38]

1638 yilda Hapsburg toji uzoq vaqt davomida armiyani Braziliyaning shimoli-sharqidan gollandlarni haydab chiqarishga yordam berishga muvaffaq bo'ldi. Ushbu kurashning ikkala tomoni ham kuchlarni to'plashda, ham ularning kuchlarini oziqlantirish va ta'minlashda qiyin bo'lgan logistik muammolardan aziyat chekdilar. Ispaniya armadasining qo'mondoni Dom Fernão de Mascarenhas, conde da Torre edi. Armada qirq olti kema va 5000 askar bilan suzib ketdi. Armada enroute kasalligi tufayli 3000 erkakni yo'qotdi. 1639 yil 10-yanvarda Pernambukoda Recife tashvishi yuqori bo'lganligi sababli, flot ko'tarildi. Biroq, Conde da Torre qo'nish o'rniga Baia tomon suzib o'tishga qaror qildi. Bu orada gollandlar Pernambukoni 1200 kishini kuchaytirdilar. Bahiyada o'n oy turgandan so'ng, Conde da Torre yana Resifiga suzib ketdi. Yomon shamollar va oqimlar tufayli uning kuchlari Recife-ni Itamaraka yaqinidagi Gollandiya floti bilan ishg'ol qilishdi. Filo ishtiroki hal qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega emas edi, ammo noaniq janglar boshlangandan so'ng, oqimlar Ispaniyaning og'ir kemalarini Pernambukoga suzib ketishiga to'sqinlik qildi. Ratsion yana qisqaroq bo'lganligi sababli, Luis Barbalho boshchiligidagi quruqlik qo'shinlari Pernambuko va Gollandiya hududidan o'tib o'tib, Bahiyadan quruqlikka qaytib ketishdi. Ushbu kuchning katta qismi Bahiyaga qaytib keldi, asosan Pernambukoda yashovchi portugal mustamlakachilarining qo'llab-quvvatlash vazifasi edi.^[38]

Oldingi kurashlarda portugaliyaliklar gollandiyalik raqiblarining hech biriga chorak bermaslikka qaror qilishdi. Ushbu qaror yozma ravishda qabul qilindi va gollandlar Portugaliya kemasini sovrin sifatida qabul qilishganda, ko'rsatma aniqlandi. Keyinchalik Luis Barbalho Yoxan Mauritsni Bahiyaga uzoq yurish paytida kasal va jarohat olgani uchun to'rtdan bir qismiga yozganida, Maurits bu siyosatni amalga oshirish uchun Luis Barbalho yozgan maktub nusxasini yuborgan va, albatta, buning evaziga to'rtdan birini rad etgan. Armada gollandlarni quvib chiqara olmaganidan so'ng, toj tomonidan turli amaldorlarning chaqirilishi, gollandiyaliklar Pernambukoga qo'shimcha kuchlar kelishi va Dom Xorxe de Maskarenxas (Mantalvaning yangi markasi va birinchi general-gubernator viceroy unvoniga ega bo'ling) ikki kishi, o'sha davr mezonlariga ko'ra insonparvar bo'lgan Montalvao va Maurits, ikkala tomonda sodir bo'lgan mahbuslarni o'ldirishni to'xtatish to'g'risida muzokara olib bordilar va Pernambuko va Shimoliy-Sharqiy Braziliyani boshqarish uchun kurashni kamroq barbarlik darajasi, bu chorak yana mag'lubiyatga uchragan dushmanga etkazildi.^[38]

1640 yilda Braganzaning uyi Portugaliya taxtini Xapsburglardan egallab oldi. Ispaniyalik Fillip IV bajonidil Portugaliyani qo'yib yubormagan va Ispaniyaga qarshi urush har doimgidek bir necha yillar davom etadigan imkoniyat bo'lgan bo'lsa-da, Portugaliya Gollandiyaliklar bilan sulh tuzishi mumkin edi, garchi u asosan Evropada kuzatilgan bo'lsa-da, kamdan-kam hollarda va istamaygina Evropadan tashqarida kuzatilgan, ikkita muhim istisno bilan birga, Yoxan Mauritsning harbiy ekspluatatsiyasi yopilishi boshlandi. Ushbu istisnolardan birinchisi, qullarni ta'minlash uchun Afrikaga qilingan yana bir ekspeditsiya edi. Ikkinchisi, 1641 yilda Maranxa shahrini ishg'ol qilish edi. Pernambuko qullarni shakar sanoatini qo'llab-quvvatlashini talab qilganligi sababli, Afrika ekspeditsiyasi Pernambuko uchun muhim bo'lgan, Maranxoning ishg'ol etilishi esa Pernambukoning tarixi uchun unchalik ahamiyatga ega bo'lmagan.^[38]

Yoxan Mauritsning gumanistik boshqaruvi

"Braziliyada bo'lganida Yoxan Maurits atrofiga Gollandiyadan kelgan qirq oltita olim, olim, rassom va hunarmandning diqqat bilan tanlangan atrofini to'pladi, ularning hammasi o'zlarining maxsus funktsiyalari va topshiriqlariga ega edilar. Piso tropik kasalliklar va ularni davolash usullarini o'rganib chiqdi, Marcgraf astronomik va meteorologik kuzatuvlardan tashqari Braziliya va Angolaning faunasi, florasi va geografiyasining ilmiy to'plamlarini yaratdi; yarim o'nlab rassomlar, shu jumladan Frans Post va Albert Ekut...filled their portfolios with sketches of every aspect of local life and culture.”^[39] He was also appreciative of the need to win the cooperation of the residents of Pernambuco. A Protestant himself he tolerated the Catholic priests and friars (excepting the Jesuits). He permitted Jewish religious practices, including the establishment of two synagogues in Recife, in the face of complaints from both Catholics and Protestants. Moreover, he left undisturbed the religious activities of both Africans and the indigenous tribes. He reduced taxation and allowed the planters liberal credit. He established local representative governments on which both Portuguese and Dutch residents served. He maintained strict discipline among the soldiers in the garrison.^[40]

Under Maurits’ rule Recife, which had been chiefly a village at Olinda's port that supported shipping and catered to seamen, was renamed Mauritsstad. Using bridges to nearby islands, Maurits laid out the capital of New Holland and set it on course to become the capital city of Pernambuco that Recife is today. Partly to induce planters to build their own homes in the new city Johan Maurit built two country-seats. He built a dike system to bring in water from the river and in the sandy wasteland, he brought in fertile soil and planted a garden with all kinds of fruit trees from Brazil as well as imported trees. The garden had two thousand coconut palms, which gives an idea of the scale of the plantings. He also brought all kinds of birds, parrots, macaws, wading birds, pheasants, guinea fowl, ducks, swans, and doves beyond counting. He also had animals brought in including tigers, ounces, anteaters, apes, monkeys, tapirs, etc.^[38]

Recife or Mauritsstad – Capital of the Nieuw Holland in Braziliya

A final witness to the capabilities of Johan Maurits is found in Southey's description of the completion of the principal bridge (among several bridges) Maurits had built for Recife. "A great work yet remained, to connect Mauritius with Recife by a bridge. The architect went on building stone pillars, until he came to the deepest part, before giving up the attempt in despair. There were many persons who rejoiced at the failure, an outcry was raised against Mauritz, as the projector of an impracticable scheme. He took it into his own hands. In two months it was completed, and the bridge opened."^[41]

Jews in Dutch Brazil

"Relatively few of the Dutch ever learned to speak Portuguese fluently...and there is no recorded instance of an 'Old Christian' Portuguese of Pernambuco having troubled to learn Dutch."^[42] Writers of this period explain that Jews in Pernambuco succeeded because they spoke both languages. Despite this essential function hatred of the Jews was the one point on which Dutch Calvinists and the Catholic friars were united. Both complained that Jews congregated publicly, married with Christians, converted Christians, circumcised Christians, employed Christian servants in their home, and kept Christian women as concubines. Johan Maurits ignored these complaints. Johan Maurits was well-liked by the Jews in Dutch Brazil.^[43]

Revolt against the Dutch

“The Dutch had basically imposed their control over an existing colony that had already achieved a certain level of social and institutional development so that whatever the Dutch introduced was a thin overlay.”^[44] After the departure of Johan Maurits in 1644 and the reduction of Dutch forces, a rebellion broke out in 1645.^[45] Although the Dutch would lose any effective control of the interior by 1648, they were not expelled from Mauritsstade (Recife) until 1654.^[46]

The initial leaders of the Portuguese were Andre Vidal de Negreiros and João Fernandes Vieira. These were supported by the actions of António Teles da Silva, the Governor-general in Bahia, whose machinations, included dispatching troops and suborning Major Dirk Hooghstraten, commander of the key fortress of Pontal de Nazaré to surrender the fort. The forces that Teles da Silva dispatched included two that would figure large in Pernambucan lore: an Afro-Brazilian unit under Henrique Dias, and an indigenous unit under Filipe Camarão. The first significant engagement occurred at the Monte das Tabocas where the Dutch forces armed with firearms were defeated by Fernades Viera's rebels armed mostly with pikes, swords, scythes, and makeshift weapons.^[45]

In the meantime, two Portuguese regiments dispatched by the Governor-general landed at Tamandaré. These regiments under Martim Soares Moreno and André Vidal de Negreiros, after occupying Serinhaem, advanced on Cabo de Santo Agostinho and the fortress of Pontal de Nazaré, where Hooghstraten as previously agreed surrendered without a fight.^[45]

The Dutch no longer controlled the countryside and were besieged in Recife. Portugal still threatened by Spain on the peninsula could do little. The Dutch were the best situated to break the impasse, for reasons largely involving conflicting interests among the United Provinces and the Dutch East and West India companies struggled to master the rebellion.^[45]

In 1646 the Dutch, deciding that Dutch Brazil would never be safe with the Portuguese in Bahia, occupied Itaparica Island opposite Salvador, Bahia. This action would elicit a response from Portugal, but it did not serve to break the stalemate in Pernambuco.^[45]

The next important action in Pernambuco was when the Dutch marched out to do battle under General Von Scope. The two sides met in the Battle of First Guarapes (1648). As had happened at the battle of Monte das Tabocas the Dutch withdrew after nightfall leaving the Pernambucan forces to find themselves the victors the next morning. This amounted to a boost to Portuguese morale but did not affect the standoff between the belligerents.^[45]

The next year, 1649, having in the interim made a raid on Bahia with considerable success, the Dutch again came out to fight in Pernambuco. Once again the forces met in the second battle of Guarapes. The Dutch early on took the high ground which had little concealment. The Portuguese, under Francisco Barreto, remained among the trees at the foot of the hill. The Dutch grew thirsty in the tropical sun on the barren hilltop and decided to withdraw. When the main body was passing a narrow spot the Portuguese attacked. Although the Dutch fought well for a while, confusion set in and the Portuguese victory became a route.^[46]

Despite the rout, the situation changed little. The Portuguese still controlled the countryside, but could not take Recife because of Dutch sea power. Both the Dutch and the Pernambucans had much to discourage them. Neither side had a good prospect. The ultimate surrender of the Dutch mostly resulted from the outbreak of war between the English and the Dutch beginning in 1652. This diminished the ability of the Dutch to project sea power against Portugal and Brazil. Now the Dutch could not blockade Lisbon if King João sent ships against Recife. This he did in 1653. With Portuguese ships now supporting the Pernambucans, the Dutch surrendered Recife in January 1654.^[46]

A Slow Recovery from the Dutch Incursion: 1650 to 1700

Tashqi ta'sirlar

Heroic as the Brazilian Portuguese were in the struggle to expel the Dutch, their ultimate success was largely dependent on external factors. The Dutch dominated the seaways, Portugal itself was under constant threat by a land attack from Spain and a blockade by the Dutch. The failure of the Dutch to immediately counter their expulsion from Recife can be laid to three principal considerations: the exhaustion of the Dutch from their war with England, the nearly complete bankruptcy of the West Indies Company, and an overriding concern with the Dutch Baltic trade which was threatened in 1655 by a crisis between Denmark and Sweden. After extended dissension among the United Provinces, and mediation by the not disinterested English, the Dutch period in Brazil was only finally settled diplomatically in 1662 by Treaty^[47]

Internal Problems in Post-Dutch Pernambuco

Competition from Caribbean Sugar

As early as 1633, the rise in sugar prices caused by the Dutch invasion of Pernambuco had Barbados experimenting with growing sugar cane. By 1643, Barbadian sugar was for sale in Europe, and countries with colonies in the Caribbean were rushing to follow suit. By the time the Dutch were expelled from Pernambuco and with the establishment of their sugar colonies, the major European powers began excluding Brazilian sugar from their markets. "In the 1630's, about 80 percent of the sugar sold in London originated in Brazil. By 1670, that figure had fallen to 40 percent, and by 1690, to only 10 percent".^[48]The sugar colonies in the Caribbean now competed for slaves and this raised that cost.

Quilombos

Runaway African slaves and their quilombos (settlements) had long been a problem in Pernambuco and throughout Brazil. Well before the Dutch incursion governors had appointed capitães-do-mato (bush captains) to hunt out quilombos and recapture slaves. However, in addition to a large number of Africans imported to Pernambuco, the turmoil and destruction of the guerrilla war against the Dutch provided ample opportunities for slaves to escape and take refuge in Quilombos. Alagoas, which was part of Pernambuco until 1817, was the site of Palmares, the largest and most famous quilombo Braziliyada. Palmares, although dispersed for defense, was nevertheless a small city, with streets and residences along with cultivated fields and at some point self-styled as the Republic of Palmares. Moreover, Africans were not content to live a stone-age existence without metal tools, firearms, and other implements and conveniences, the principal source of which was to raid Portuguese settlements. Thus, aside from the Portuguese wanting to reclaim their escaped slaves, the Portuguese were under threat of attack from the quilombos.^[49] As early as 1627 Governor-general Diogo Botelho ordered an attack against a quilombo near the Real river, with limited success. The Dutch likewise attacked Palmares unsuccessfully with 300 Muskateers and 700 Indians.^[50] After the Dutch were expelled there was a period of relative non-aggression against Palmares, but beginning in 1672 there began a period of repeated attacks on Palmares (eight between 1672 1680) culminating in the destruction of Palmares in 1694.^[51] This ended the largest and most famous of the quilombos, but a multitude of smaller quilombos would remain for decades.

Boshqa omillar

In the 1680s Europe, including Portugal and by extension Brazil, fell into depression, there were perioding epidemics in Brazil throughout this period and in 1693-55 the discovery of gold far away from Pernambuco disrupted the economy and further raised costs.^[52] Pernambuco was recovering, but at a glacial pace.

Pernambuco in the Golden Age of Brazil

The discovery of gold in Minas Gerais in 1693-95 and later diamonds (sometime before 1726) had the predictable result of starting a gold rush. No part of Brazil or the Portuguese world was unaffected. So many people rushed to the goldfields with so little preparation that some starved for lack of food. Food when available sold for 25 to 50 times its price on the coast.^[53] Although Recife was far from the goldfields, Pernambuco was not unaffected. At this time the Captaincy of Pernambuco encompassed about four or five times as much territory as does the modern state of Pernambuco and extended far into the backlands including interior lands that would later be attached to other states. The sertão (backlands) already was used for cattle ranching and in particular, the valley of the São Francisco River became a popular route feeding would-be miners, equipment, and supplies to the goldfields.^[54] The mining boom inevitably diverted both free men and slaves from all Brazilian coastal areas including Pernambuco and drove up prices.^[55]While Stuart Schwartz observes that "...even at the height of the period of gold production, earnings from sugar were always greater than those from gold or any other commodity,"^[56] the gold rush severely impacted the sugar industry in the first half of the Eighteenth Century. For example, the price of slaves one of the principal costs in the sugar economy went from 40 milreis before the discovery of gold to 200 milreis in 1723. Thus the sugar-producing areas of Pernambuco struggled against inflation getting relief mostly when there were wars in Europe.^[57]

War of the Mascates

The eminent Twentieth Century historian C. R. Boxer, in describing the coeval accounts of the War of the Mascates commented, “So much hard lying is involved in this conflict of evidence that the exact truth is probably unascertainable....”^[58]

The War of the Mascates evidences the tensions between the planters and senores de engenho (the landed elites) in colonial Brazil and the mascots (merchants) of Recife. The “War” (there was considerable shooting but little loss of life) has elements of class struggle. Moreover, although Recife and Olinda were far from the goldfields, to an arguable extent the War of the Mascates can be seen as a parallel to the Emboabalar urushi between the established residents of Brazil and newcomers. And, to whatever extent that is true, shows effects of the gold rush were felt in Pernambuco many miles from the goldfields.^[59]

After the expulsion of the Dutch, Olinda, then the capital of Pernambuco and the civic and religious center, was left in shambles. Yet Olinda was the municipality of the planters, the local aristocracy. Recife, the port facility for Olinda, formerly consisting of a few modest dwellings, warehouses, and businesses catering to ships and seamen, had been developed into a thriving center of commerce populated by wealthy, more recently arrived merchants to whom most of the landed aristocracy of Pernambuco were heavily indebted.^[59]

The governor, Sebastião de Castro e Caldas, was appointed by the crown, the local municipal offices were controlled by the planters. The wealthy merchants resented the political controls exercised by the planters, and the planters resented being indebted to the merchants. The governors frequently favored wealthy merchants.^[59]

In 1710, after many denied requests, the crown granted Recife municipal status. The governor, anticipating resistance from the planters, decided on a secret and clumsy, strategy to implement the new municipality. The planters seized upon his secrecy to contend that the new status for Recife had not been authorized by the king. The planters reacted, the governor reacted, the governor was shot at and decamped to Bahia. The planters attacked Recife, although serious violence was averted by clerical intercession. The planters and their allies regrouped in Olinda where, in a precursor to the declaration of an independent republic in the Nineteenth Century, there was at least a minimally credible suggestion that Pernambuco is declared an independent republic.^[59]

For several months the situation was subdued, but then the merchants and their allies rebelled. After some minimal violence, the planters and their adherents laid siege to Recife (and additionally to some other areas adhering to the masticates, such as the fortress of Tamandaré). The siege was successful to the extent of isolating and inconveniencing the residents of Recife, however, despite a need to subsist mostly by eating shellfish and other seafood, Recife was able to sustain itself until the crown appointed new governor arrived. The new governor, Felix Machado, came with a pardon for the rebels and relative peace was restored temporarily. However, the municipal status of Recife was also affirmed and the planters again took offense. Felix Machado, who would be remembered as one of the worst governors of Pernambuco, sided with the merchants and persecuted the planters. He too like his predecessor, Sebastiåo de Castro, accrued an attempted assassination.^[59]

However accurate or exaggerated the descriptions of the depravity of governor Felix Machado, his excesses were eventually quelled when António de Albuquerque, twice governor of Rio de Janeiro stopped in Pernambuco en route to Lisbon. Apprised of the situation he presented his Pernambucan relative's case to the king. The king issued a new set of instructions to Governor Felix Machado, freeing a shipload of planters who were already chained and on board a ship about to sail to Portugal. In 1715 the crown dispatched a new governor to replace Felix Machado and residents of Pernambuco finally felt the troubles were ended, though many families of the colony's elites were ruined.”^[59]

Pernambuco in the Late Eighteenth Century

Sebastião Carvalho José Carvalho e Melo, Marquis of Pombal, was the dominant figure in the history of the Portuguese empire in the late Eighteenth Century. "Portuguese historians contradict one another in their treatment of the powerful prime minister, some praising him as a savior and other damning him as a madman. Brazilian historians have treated him more consistently. They gratefully acknowledge the contributions he made...to the formation of their country."^[60] The period is logically divided into the period he was in power and the aftermath of his rule.

Yoshi Pombal (1750–1777)

While gold and diamond mining continues up to the current day in the last half of the Eighteenth Century the earliest discoveries, particularly those areas where gold and diamonds were most easily extracted gradually began producing less. Sugar, with its slave labor requirements, remained the best measure of the wealth and well-being of Brazil and particularly Pernambuco. Pombal instituted reforms, such as boards of inspection in 1751, and the planters complained to no avail. But the real problem in the Pernambucan (and Brazilian) sugar industry was a market problem. Too many countries produced sugar in their Caribbean colonies, driving down the price of sugar and inflating the price of slaves. The price of sugar on the market fell sharply between 1750 and 1755. In the mid-1750s a pombaline company was started and with the outbreak of the Etti yillik urush in 1756 the price of sugar rose. Although Bahia had consistently outstripped Pernambuco in sugar production after the Dutch incursion, by 1762 it appears Pernambuco, at least temporarily, regained its preeminence in sugar production. Of course, after the war, the price fell once more. While events such as wars in Europe favorably affected Pernambuco, others, such as the Great Lisbon Earthquake of 1755 seemingly had less effect on Pernambuco.^[61]

The Expulsion of the Jesuits (1759)

Pombal's hatred of the Jesuits led to their subsequent expulsion but the impact on Pernambuco was less than in other areas with greater concentrations of indigenous peoples. In coastal Pernambuco, having fewer aldeiyalar (clergy controlled villages) the effect of the expulsion was diminished. Nevertheless, the expulsion did result in the crown confiscation and sale of Jesuit properties. Pombal thought the Jesuits were concealing great wealth in gold and treasure, but searches of confiscated properties yielded no such treasure.^[62]An additional effect of the expulsion was in education. The Jesuits had long maintained primacy in education in the Portuguese empire thru their control of the universities at Coimbra and Evora and locally in Olinda by way of their Kollegio.^[63]

From Pombal to Napoleon

While Portugal and some areas of Brazil spent the period between Pombal's rule and Napoleon's invasion of Portugal undoing much of Pombal's reforms, Pernambuco continued to experience the ups and downs of the world sugar market. The most significant event in the late Eighteenth Century was external, the slave rebellions in Santo-Domingo va Gaiti, and the consequent destruction of sugar production there. This marked the beginning of a period of resurgence in the Brazilian and Pernabucan sugar industry.^[64]In education, the influence of European thought, especially French thought, was furthered in Pernambuco as the bishop established a seminary in Olinda in 1800.^[65]

Pernambuco as Brazil Becomes a Nation Instead of a Colony

Retrospectively viewed the independence of Brazil seem almost an inevitable result of the events of the early Nineteenth Century, particularlly the arrival of the Portuguese Royal family in Brazil. Ultimately Brazil would remain territorially intact (save for the loss of what is today Urugvay ). Nevertheless, there were rebellions in regions of Brazil which might have led to the division of Brazil similar to the division of the Spanish-speaking areas of Latin America.^[66]Although many of these events influenced Pernambucan history, they are better treated as part of the Braziliya tarixi and except for those events that happened in Pernambuco these will, along with a few events entirely external to Brazil, be parenthesized to provide context.

Pernambuco's Revolts

Shuningdek qarang Braziliyadagi qo'zg'olonlar va inqiloblar

"...Pernambuco, the classic land of revolution...."^[67]

Two meaningful themes explaining events (in Pernambuco) leading up to, directly relating to, or following on the independence of Brazil were, first, regionalism and, second, the continuing conflict between the mozombos (Brazilians: those born in Brazil) and the reinóis (Portuguese: born in Portugal).^[68] The previously described War of the Mascates can be seen as a precursor of the strife between the Brazilian born and reinóis in the new nation of Brazil.

(The U. S. War for Independence, 1776; The Frantsiya inqilobi, 1789; and the slave rebellion in Haiti, 1792, exerted influence in Brazil.)

The 1817 revolution flag, with three stars representing Pernambuco, Paraíba, and Rio Grande do Norte

The Inconfidencia Mineira,1789(; the Inconfidencia of Rio de Janeiro, 1794; The Inconfidencia of Bahia, 1798;) and the Inconfidencia of Pernambuco, 1801 were not too consequential rebellions involving mostly intellectuals.

(In 1808 the Spanish-American Revolutions began, but more importantly, the Portuguese royal family arrived in Brazil in 1808 fleeing Napoleon's invasion of Portugal. When, on arrival, Prince Regent Joao opened Brazil's ports it was a big boost to many aspects of the Brazilian economy.)

(In 1815, Brazil was elevated to a kingdom. In 1816 Queen Mariya died and the reign of João VI began.) In 1817 Pernambuco rebelled preferring a republic to a monarch, the rebellion was quickly put down by naval and land forces of the monarchy and its leaders were executed.^[68]

(In 1821 King João acceded to the request of the Portuguese Cortes and returned to Lisbon, leaving his son Pedro as regent in Brazil, but taking all the treasury monies and movable assets with him. In 1822, the Cortes, meeting in Lisbon, imprudently took several actions trying to reduce Brazil to its previous status as a colony and Prince Pedro issued the Grito do Ipiranga, “Independence or death” and the Braziliya imperiyasi was born.)^[69]

The flag of the Confederation of the Equator.

(In 1824 The emperor, Pedro I, promulgated a constitution for the Empire that would hold until the empire ended in 1889.) This same year, in reaction to the new constitution, Pernambuco again rebelled, and together with Ceará and Paraíba formed the Ekvator Konfederatsiyasi, once again naval and land forces put down the rebellion in short order^[69] and executed the leaders.^[68] Additionally, by imperial decree, the size of Pernambuco was substantially reduced, removing the comarca of São Francisco from Pernambuco and reducing the Sertao (backlands) belonging to Pernambuco.^[70]

(In 1825, Brazil engaged in war with Argentina over what became modern-day Urugvay after the two countries fought to an inconclusive result.)^[69]

(In 1826, Pedro I, abdicated in favor of his five-year-old son. Pedro, like his father, took ship to Lisbon. There he would succeed in installing his daughter on the throne of Portugal and shortly thereafter die.)^[69]

In 1829, Pernambuco would again rebel and again be quickly subdued.^[69]

The War of the Cabanos, 1832–1836, differed from most of the rebellions in Pernambuco because, while there were elements of regionalism and resentment of the Portuguese, this was substantially a popular revolt, whereas the other rebellions in Pernambuco were substantially affairs of the elites. The leader, Vincente Ferreira de Paulo can be considered a populist caudilho, moreover, this rebellion was agrarian based-whereas other rebellions were substantially confined to Recife. (This rebellion also had a link to the 1844 Cabanagem in Alagoas).^[69]

The Praeyra qo'zg'oloni, oxirgi muvaffaqiyatsiz revolt during the Empire in Brazil, occurred in Pernambuco in 1847–48. This revolt, again due to resentment of the Portuguese and factionalism, was put down by imperial forces though with somewhat fewer reprisals than in earlier revolts.^[66]

The Geography of Pernambuco

The territory of Pernambuco varied considerably during the colonial period and the current borders were set in the Nineteenth Century after 1799 when Seara was detached from Pernambuco and by the detachment of the comarca of São Francisco in 1824. Most of the history of Pernambuco, especially prior to the Nineteenth Century pertains to the zona da mata (what was the forest zone along the coast) where sugar cane grows well. There are two other areas, the agreste, a transitional zone atop the Borborema escarpment where cotton grows well, and the sertão, known for its periodic droughts and resulting famines.^[71] There is little historical record of the agreste yoki sertão, even in the Nineteenth Century.

Pernambucan Social Structure

The following groups typify the major social, economic, and political classes prominent in Pernambuco's history from colonial times well into the Twentieth Century. The elites consisted of governing officials, mostly appointed by an external ruler, senhores de engenho, (owners of sugar mills), and coroneis (colonels), especially in the backlands a local landowner/power-broker. The key group in the elites being the senhores do engenho. On the middle level, lavradores da cana (generally growers of sugar cane who possibly owned land but did not own an engenho, merchants, certain "skilled" workers, for example: mestres de açucar (masters of sugar making). Finally, the lower classes including, slaves, freedmen, share croppers, laborers, etc.^[72][73][74]

Literacy, Education, Publishing

During the colonial era printing presses were not allowed in Brazil and education was limited mostly to the kollegiyalar of the religious orders, Moreover, in the colonial era, only a few (in all of Brazil somewhat more than 3000^[75]) colonists received degrees in Coimbra. Despite the low literacy rate, even among the free population (15%)^[76]) A printing press was in operation by 1817^[77] Keyinchalik Diario de Pernambuko tashkil etildi. Today this newspaper claims to be the "oldest continuously circulating daily in Latin America." During the Empire Olinda (later Recife) became the home of the second Law school in Brazil^[78]

Iqtisodiyot

From the time of Portuguese settlement, the economy in Pernambuco had been based on latifundia (large estates), monoculture (one-crop), and slavery. Now that Pernambuco was no longer a colony, producing for the Portuguese metropole, changes in the economy occurred and new institutions appeared. Some of these had been long available only in Portugal and some were a function of factors such as the Industrial Revolution. However, overall, during the Empire, the economy of Pernambuco was dominated by the decline of sugar production.^[79] While for Brazil the decline of sugar was offset by the growth of the coffee, this was not the case for Pernambuco.

Shakar

In the beginning years of the Empire sugar production in Pernambuco was high and sugar was Brazil's primary export. For example, from 1826 to 1830 exports averaged more than 28,000 crates, up from 9,200 crates in the late Eighteenth Century.^[80] However, in the second decade of the Empire, sugar, still Pernambuco's primary export crop, had yielded its primacy as a Brazilian export to coffee. Sugar has never again dominated Brazilian exports^[81] and Pernambuco was relegated to being one of two regional leaders in a Brazilian Northeast "increasingly uncompetitive with agricultural producers in the Center-South".^[82]

Qullik

The suppression of the Praieiria revolt in 1848 and the Eusébio de Queirós Law, effectively eliminating the Transatlantic slave trade, in 1850^[83] further exacerbated the shortage of slaves in Pernambuco that had existed in Pernambuco since the discovery of gold in Minas Gerais (in 1795). This provided further motivation to replace the traditional water-driven and oxen sugar mills first with centralized mills and later with usinas.^[84] In 1871, the legislature enacted the "law of the free womb" making free all children of slaves^[85] In 1888, under the influence of increasingly urban society, and with the advocacy of intellectuals, such as Pernambucan, politician Joakim Nabuko slavery was abolished.^[86]

Sanoatlashtirish

By the 1850s there was limited industrialization in Pernambuco with 9 textile mills, a candle factory, and a tobacco factory among others. However, Pernambuco remained an export-oriented, sugar-based economy and during the second half of the Ninetheenth Century industrialization in the sugar industry, in response to the closure of the slave trade, was, at best, of limited success.^[87]

Bank faoliyati

In 1851 the first bank in Pernambuco was established, The Commercial Bank of Pernambuco. Brazil had not had any banks until the 1840s. The banks would become principal lenders and creditors in Pernambuco displacing the merchants and religious establishments in so doing.^[88]

Paxta

Cotton is indigenous to Brazil and has been cultivated in Pernambuco since prehistory. Beginning in the late Eighteenth Century, as a result of the Sanoat inqilobi cotton became an important export for Pernambuco through the beginning of the Empire. (The U.S. War of 1812 provided an impetus to cotton cultivation, this war provided a much-expanded market for this export crop.) After 1830 United States production largely replaced Brazilian cotton. However, in the decade of the 1860s, during the U. S. Civil War, cotton again became an important export for Pernambuco.^[89] Cotton, in contrast with sugar, was grown in the agreste^[90]

Railroads and Transportation

In 1858 the first railroad in Pernambuco began operation between Recife and Cabo. The railways would primarily speed exports to the external markets. The effects of the railroads in unifying Brazil and improving internal transportation were less significant.^[91]

The Abolition of Slavery, A Republic replaces the Empire: Major Events for Brazil with Minor Impact in Pernambuco

Pernambuco was little changed by either the abolition of slavery or the change from empire to republic. The elites within Pernambuco mostly maintained their privileged position and the freed slaves mostly became wage workers in an economy where the cost of labor was cheap. The local elites were able to control Pernambuco and allow modernization always with the condition that modernization and change must not interfere with their rights and privileges. Governor Barbosa Lima listed Pernambuco's significant problems in the beginning years of the Republic. Decades later Pedro Souto Maior listed the same problems.^[92]

Bekor qilish

Resistance to abolition in Pernambuco was tempered by the economic conditions. The ascendency of coffee in the Brazilian Center-South and the suppression of the Atlantic slave trade had resulted in an internal slave trade that diminshed the number of slaves in Pernambuco and other areas of the Northeast.^[93] Limited modernization and consolidation of sugar mills made the sugar industry less reliant on slave labor, moreover, cheap labor in the local market further reduced the need for slaves. As a result of abolition, despite the benefit of freedom, freed slaves mostly melded into an existing labor supply consisting of impoverished workers. ^[94]

The (Old) Republic

The demise of the Empire and the institution of the Republic were events whose locus was well to the South of Pernambuco. The republicans of Pernambuco were not well organized nor influential. The monarchists quickly became republicans and Pernambuco was little changed. The Sugar aristocracy maintained control of the government. The elites saw the poor as criminals. Life for the poor was harsh: there was "high fertility, high mortality, malnutrition, and violence....".^[95]

The Era of Getúlio Vargas

"The figure of Getúlio Vargas dominates the history of Brazil from 1930 to 1954, and his memory still hovers over its politics". Vargas became provisional president in 1930. He was elected constitutional president in 1937. Overthrown in 1945 he was elected president by popular vote in 1954. ^[96] In contrast to the old republic, the Vargas era installed a strong central government.^[97] However, Brazil by this time was primarily dominated by São Paulo and Minas Gerais. Pernambuco was still a leading state in the Northeast, but the Northeast as a whole exerted little influence within Brazil.^[98]

Getúlio Vargas Comes to Power and Lima Cavalcanti Becomes Interventor (later Governor) in Pernambuco

In 1930, the Democratic Party of Pernambuco was able to seize the opportunity presented at the rise of Getúlio Vargas on the national level to install Lima Cavalcanti as aralashuvchi in control of the government of Pernambuco.^[99] Cavalcanti would remain in power in Pernambuco until removed by Vargas in 1937. ^[100]

Hukumat

The government of Pernambuco was riven by competition between factions of the elites struggling for control and spoils.^[101]

Social and Economic Conditions

Especially during the early years of Cavalcanti's rule in Pernambuco one of the periodic droughts that recur in the Northeast of Brazil had great impact on Pernambuco's social and economic life. This drought was unusually severe and municipal warehouses in the interior suffered looting and streams of migrants came from the sertão qirg'oqqa. Unfortunately, Pernambuco was initially excluded from federal aid to the Northeast.^[102] At the end of Cavalcanti's rule in 1937, the continued primacy of the declining sugar economy left Pernambuco dominated by the local aristocracy with little or no improvement for the lower classes.^[103] During the Vargas era an important development in Brazil was the emergence of a middle class. Unfortunately, even in the 1950's, "The middle class was practically non-existent in the economically backward regions of the country....[in] cities, such as Recife...it was difficult to identify...."^[104]

Between Vargas (1954) and Military Dictatorship (1964)

In this period only President Kubitschek served a complete term in office. All national politics remained dominated by the pro-Vargas and anti-Vargas factions. ^[105]

The Impoverished in Pernambuco Begin to Gain a Voice

Pernambuco (along with Bahia) in the middle of the Twentieth Century was one of the two leading states in the Brazilian Northeast. O'sha davrda daromad yiliga o'rtacha 140 dollarni tashkil etdi, aholi jon boshiga elektr energiyasini iste'mol qilish o'rtacha Braziliya milliy darajasining beshdan bir qismini tashkil etdi, bolalar o'limi koeffitsientlari 1000 tirik tug'ilgan chaqaloqqa 250 dan 500 gacha, kattalar aholisining to'rtdan uch qismi savodsiz edi va bundan kam O'quvchilarning 3 foizi boshlang'ich maktabni tamomlagan.^[106] Bundan tashqari, Pernambukodagi shakar sanoati Yigirmanchi asrning boshlarida eng past darajadan tiklanayotgan bir paytda, eng qashshoq shakar ishchilarining turmush darajasi pasayib borardi.^[107]

Shu muhitda ishchilar uyushishni boshladilar va "dehqonlar ligalari" paydo bo'ldi. Braziya Sotsialistik partiyasining (PSB) advokati va a'zosi Fransisko Juliano dehqonlar ishini qo'llab-quvvatladi va keyingi sud va siyosiy kurash atrofidagi oshkoralik dehqonlarni kuchaytirdi. Pernambukodagi taxminiy 40,000 a'zosiga liga.^[108]

Kuba inqilobini shu qadar yaqindan kuzatib borgan dehqonlar ligalari AQSh Markaziy razvedka boshqarmasining mo''tadil dehqon tashkilotlarini yashirin qo'llab-quvvatlashga qaratilgan harakatlarini keltirib chiqardi. Ushbu mo''tadil tashkilotlarning eng diqqatga sazovor joylaridan biri Paulo Krespo va Antonio de Melo ismli ikki ruhoniy tomonidan tashkil etilgan Pernambuko Qishloq Yo'nalish xizmati (SORPE) edi. SORPEning harakatlari bir nechta kasaba uyushmalari edi 1963 yilda Pernambukodagi 200 ming shakar ishchisi ish tashlashdi va ish haqining 80 foizga oshishiga erishdi.^[109]

Zamonaviy davlat

Kassava janjali

Ushbu bo'lim balki juda uzoq va haddan tashqari batafsil. Iltimos, materialni qisqacha bayon qilishni o'ylab ko'ring manbalarga asoslanib kerak bo'lganda. (2014 yil yanvar)

Pernambuko tarixidagi eng yirik moliyaviy mojarolardan biri 1980 yilda sodir bo'lgan Braziliya banki yilda Floresta ~ 700 million dollar va shtatdagi bir nechta nufuzli odamlarni jalb qilgan holda.

Bank tomonidan ekish uchun kreditlar ajratilgan kassava, keyin qurg'oqchilik plantatsiyalarni yo'q qilgan deb da'vo qilishgan (ular hech qachon ekilmagan) va zararni qoplagan hosilni sug'urtalash. Hatto bank menejeri ham aralashgan. 1981 yil iyulda Pernambukano matbuoti bu yolg'onni fosh qildi va federal sud tergovi boshlandi. Pullar hech qachon boshqa yo'naltirilmagan.

1982 yil 3 martda tuman prokurori Pedro Xorxe de Melo tergov uchun mas'ul bo'lgan o'ldirilgan Olinda. Jinoyat milliy oqibatlarga olib keldi. O'limda ayblanayotgan ettita sudlanuvchining sud jarayoni, ular orasida deputat mayor Xose Ferreyra dos Anjos, 1983 yil oktyabr oyida hakamlar hay'atida Recife, sudlanuvchilarning har biri uchun 31 yillik qamoq jazosiga hukm qilindi.

1983 yil noyabrda mayor Xose Ferreyra qamoqdan qochgan. U 1996 yil yanvar oyida qaytarib olingan Bahia ichki qismi va Recife qamoqxonasiga qaytib keldi.^{[iqtibos kerak ]}

Shuningdek qarang

• Savdogarlar urushi 1710 dan 1711 gacha
• Suassunaning fitnasi 1801
• Ekvator Konfederatsiyasi 1824
• Praieira inqilobi 1848 yildan 1850 yilgacha
• Recife xronologiyasi

Adabiyotlar

Qo'shimcha o'qish

• "Mahalliy tarix, Braziliya: Pernambuko". Uilyam B. Grinlining portugal tarixi to'plamining katalogi ... Newberry kutubxonasida. Chikago: Newberry kutubxonasi. 1953. hdl:2027 / mdp.39015023946240 - Xati Trust orqali.